Percy Julian

pj Mike Reszkowski Percy Julian Percy Julian, the forgotten genius, was one of the greatest chemists in the United States. He became a very successful and wealthy person despite his poor family and childhood. His discoveries and works are huge contributions to American lives even still today. His ability to overcome difficulties and work hard in the toughest situations is what makes him a person we should all aspire to be. Julian was one of very few African American chemists, which made it even harder for him to succeed.Born in Montgomery, Alabama on April 11th, 1899, race negatively affected him every step of the way. As a young adult he had to attend high school at night while in college to keep up with his white classmates because public high school wasn’t available for blacks at the time. After graduating from DePauw University he tried desperately to find a job professing or in a chemistry lab but was constantly refused because of his skin color. Finally his luck started to change. After professing at an all black college, he landed a job in a small, underprivileged laboratory at DePauw.From here, the lost list of accomplishments begins. What really kick started his career as a chemist was his work at DePauw. There he synthesized Physostigmine, a drug still used to treat glaucoma, skin and kidney disease, and leukemia. But the school wouldn’t offer him a professing job because of his race. Next, his work was continued at Glidden Paint factory, Here him and his research crew began studies on the soybean plant. His quick discoveries improving paint for the company were soon overcome by his ambition to achieve greater so he began that research on his own time.Still fascinated with the soy bean plant he further studied into the uses of it and made an even more important discovery, the protein extracted from the soy bean plant could be used to make hormones for the body. Such uses include the drug to prevent miscarriages, a major issue in at the t ime. Of his next achievements were discovering an easier and more efficient way to synthesize cortisone using yam which was used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, a crippling disease that many people suffer from. These were made at his own laboratory which later he sold and became one of the first black millionaires in the U.S. The list can go on for a long time, but that’s not the point. The point is that he worked up from nothing and struggled through the racism of America. He continued on when the world around him said to quit, and he wasn’t good enough. His diligence and determination is the two things that made him successful, and two things all of us should have in us. They are the two things necessary to succeed, the hard work has to be put in and you have refuse to quit. This is why Percy Julian did all that he did, and it’s why he became one of the most famous and successful chemists of our time.

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich Analysis Essay

Joseph Stalin strategically came into power in communist Russia in the 1930’s. Within just a few years, he turned Russia from a communist state into a totalitarian dictatorship. Few people chose to speak out against Stalin, but those who did were put into Siberian work camps or gulags. Alexander Solzhenitsyn was one of the few that chose to speak out against Stalin and his totalitarian regime. He used his years in the work camps to illustrate a vivid portrayal of what camp life was like in his book, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. The novel is a criticism against Stalin’s communism, and is a commentary on why a communistic system will never work. Three of the biggest ways the novel critiques communism are: by attempting to dehumanize Russian society, displaying forms of unjust punishment, and arguing the importance of faith. Solzhenitsyn propagates the radical idea that communism doesn’t work. Communism is the idea that everyone in society receives equal shares of the benefits resulting from labor. It teaches the poor to rise up and attain financial and social status equal to that of the middle-class. In order for everyone to be on the same level, wealth is redistributed so the members of the upper class are brought down to the same financial and social level as the middle class (Coffin 660-665). In theory, communism is presented as to be a utopia where everyone has adequate food and shelter but in the novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, it is clear communism in practice is very different from communism in ideology. The communism Solzhenitsyn presents in this novel actually tries to take away any form of human dignity. The story takes place in a Russian prison camp after World War II. The protagonist is a man named Ivan Denisovich Shukhov, but referred to as Shukhov for most of the novel . The author refers to Ivan as Shukhov to emphasize the how the camp sets him at a cold, official distance. â€Å"Ivan† is Shukhov’s first name and Denisovich is his patronymic, a name that is derived from one’s father’s name. In Russian society, addressing someone by his or her first name and patronymic is cordial but respectful. The early Soviet Communist regime tried to eradicate this form of address because the respect it entails suggested class differences among people, something communism seeks to destroy. On the other hand, addressing someone by his or her last name has an official meaning. The Soviet manner of addressing people as â€Å"Comrade† followed by their last name was an attempt to replace the old way of addressing someone with a new one better adapted to a class-free nation. â€Å"Even in the camp they were polite to people and addressed them by their full name† (Solzhenitsyn 26). The prison camp workers always addressed each other with the same degree of respect in order to preserve each other’s dignity. The labor camp in which Ivan is imprisoned is designed to oppress and dehumanize its prisoners. The living conditions are simply unbearable. The mattresses do not have sheets, prisoners share tiny portions of bread and porridge per meal, and the guards force the prisoners to undress in sub zero temperatures for body searches. The camp replaces the prisoner’s names with letter and number to erase all hints of individuality, â€Å"S 854†¦three days penalty work,† says the new warden to, Ivan as punishment for not getting up on time (Solzhenitsyn 7-8). The camp gives everyone numbers and makes them all dress identically take away their identities, â€Å"from the outside, everyone in the squad looked the same- their black coats were identical-but within the squad there were great distinctions† (Solzhenitsyn 15). However, Denisovich does not accept the camps attempts to dehumanize him. He shows maintaining human dignity does not have to be achieved through violent rebellion but rather, through developing a system of personal rules. For example, at meal time, no matter the conditions, he always removes his cap before eating, â€Å"then he removed his hat from his clean-shaven head- however cold it might be, he could never bring himself to eat with his hat on† (Solzhenitsyn 16). From his childhood, this practice gives Ivan a sense that he is behaving in a civilized manner. No matter how famished he becomes, he never stoops to Fetyukov’s level, begging for scraps. He scorns Fetyukov’s behavior, which he believes is inhuman. Ivan may be treated like an animal by the Soviet camp system, but he subtly fights back and refuses to submit. In one instance, Shukhov is tempted to ask a fellow prisoner for a cigarette which the other man has already half smoked but, â€Å"but he would never lower himself†¦ he would never look at a man’s mouth† (Solzhenitsyn 27). Ivan never allows the labor camp to get the best of him but gets punished for things one in his control on top of being imprisoned. Another criticism of communism throughout the novel is the description of unjust punishment upon the prisoners. In the beginning of the novel, Shukhov does not get up on time because he is sick and is then threatened with three days in the hole. Similarly, Buynovsky receives ten days in the hole for trying to bundle up against the cold with a flannel vest. Neither Shukhov’s illness nor Buynovsky’s attempt to stay warm harm anyone, but the camp treats both as strict violations of the law, worthy of severe punishment. Such harsh punishment for such petty offenses is absurd. These men are already locked into arduous prison sentences, heaping on unfair and illogical punishment upon them is just a brutal exercise of power by the guards. Through this unjust treatment one thing that help the prisoners survive was having faith in something whether it is a strict moral code or faith in god. One of the main goals of communism was to eradicate religion from society. According to the founders of communism religion hinders societal progress; it was Marx who said â€Å"religion is the opium of people.† Solzhenitsyn implies it is much easier to get through hardships with faith in something rather than without. During a march, Shukhov thinks of Alyosha, the devout Baptist, he wonders, â€Å"What had he to be happy about? His cheeks were sunken, he lived strictly on his rations, and he earned nothing. He spent all his Sundays with the other Baptists. They shed the hardships of camp like water† (Solzhenitsyn 38). Shukhov is making the point when you believe in something, like religion, it is much easier to keep a positive attitude and survive a terrible situation. Although Ivan does not mention religion for most of the novel, his final conversation with Alyoshka, reveals faith can be a means of survival in the oppressive camp system. Ivan adheres to a strict set of rules, like always taking off his hat before eating or trying to waste as little as possible. Alyoshka, has faith in god and the human spirit â€Å"for my part I am not ready merely to be bound but even to die for the name of the Lord Jesus† (Solzhenitsyn 163), this comment really affects Shukhov to a point where he begins to reflect on his own philosophy. Shukhov’s s sense of inner peace in the novel’s last paragraph, which resembles Alyoshka’s sense of inner peace throughout the novel, demonstrates that religious faith offers strength in the face of difficulty. Having any type of faith can carry someone through hardship, religious faith is simply one type of such a faith. Though the labor camps were filled with suffering and misery, the men continued to exhibit acts of humanity in their day to day lives. The only way these men could have survived this inhuman treatment was by subtly fighting the system in their own personal way. Solzhenitsyn uses three simple yet powerful ideas: the dehumanization of the human society, displays of unjust punishment, and the importance of having faith in no matter how awful the situation is, to speak out against Stalin and the terrible consequences of Russian communism. Works Cited Coffin, Judith G., and Robert C. Stacey. Western Civilizations: Their History & Culture. New York, NY: W. W. Norton, 2008. Print. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isaevich. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. New York: Dutton, 1963. Print.

Business performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business performance - Essay Example An organization showing high performance succeeds in creating competitive advantage for the company and makes the owner and other interested body happy by generating value for them. In today’s competitive environment it is not important which professional discipline utilises the obtained information. The thing which is important is the mutual interaction between the information obtained from financial accounting, human resource management, marketing and logistics. Kral (2010) developed the thought of interdisciplinary approach. All these disciplines have their own models, conceptions and terminology to conduct the performance evaluation of the organization. In order to control and mange the operations of an organization effectively, performance management is most crucial tool used by the mangers. Performance management is needed to conduct over various functional disciplines. Interdisciplinary approach is the most appropriate technique to explore the performance of the busines s as a coherent whole (Halir, 2012). This study focuses on conducting a performance evaluation on Tesco by following the interdisciplinary approach. Tesco is one of the leading retailers in the world with more than 530000 colleagues (Tesco PLC. 2013a). They conduct their business both through stores and online services. Every week they serve millions of customers. In this study the performance will be evaluated on the basis of finance, its operations and service provided to the customers and corporate governance. For every organization financial performance plays an important role since it helps in generation of value. Moreover, since Tesco is a retailer and directly deals with customer so customer satisfaction and corporate governance also becomes important. Development Operational Performance The business of Tesco follows a multi channel approach by leveraging the online expertise and existing network of stores so that the shopping trip of the customers are made easier. Tesco clai ms to be the first retailer who in 1997 initiated grocery home shopping and has grown to be the most profitable and largest online grocery retailer in the world, with sales of over ?2 billion. In order to fulfil the high demands of the customers the in-store picking model is balanced by few specialised dotcom stores. The â€Å"Click and Collect service† is the most popular and important part of the multichannel offering done by Tesco, which allows the customers to shop whenever they desire and wherever they are. For general merchandise the organization has 1500 Click & Collect service points and more than 150 grocery drives in UK (Tesco PLC, 2013a). â€Å"Finest, Everyday Value, Chokablok and Technika† (Tesco PLC, 2013a) are some of their own-label range that has gained substantial importance in strategic area. Everyday Value and Finest are the largest food brands, each of which contributes about ?1 billion to the sales of UK in each year (Tesco PLC, 2013a). Innovation takes a very important place in developing strategies to satisfy the customers. They are multichannel retailers and not just grocery stores. They deals in variety of services starting from Tesco mobile to Tesco bank to many more services like video on demand. The company has further plans of implementing larger formats inside the store so that the store becomes appealing to the customers and they get attracted to it. But this drive for innovation has lead to criticism against Tesco over how they store the email address and passwords of the customers. The software architect Troy Hunt has pointed out flaws in the website of Tesco regarding usage of poor quality

Studio Ghibli Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Studio Ghibli - Essay Example Studio Ghibli's success is thanks largely to one man. Its co-founder and main film-maker, Hayao Miyazaki, is regarded as one ÃŽ ¿f the greatest animation directors in the world. His fans include the Aardman director Nick Park and the Pixar supremo John Lassiter, who says ÃŽ ¿f Miyazaki's work: "His worlds are the most magical, special, unusual places you have ever seen." The company, founded in 1985, takes its name from the word that Italian pilots in Libya at the beginning ÃŽ ¿f the Second World War gave to a hot Saharan wind. Miyazaki was quoted as saying that he wanted to "blow a hot wind through the world ÃŽ ¿f Japanese animation". Japanese animation was previously the domain ÃŽ ¿f pre-teen Pokemon fans and ÃŽ ¿f antisocial adolescent boys who revelled in the more unsavoury fringes ÃŽ ¿f anime - the Urotsukidoji films, with their eroticised demon rape sequences, are a particularly unpleasant example. But Ghibli quickly rose to be the dominant force in Japanese animation; the company is so well loved in Japan that there is a six- month waiting list to secure entry tickets to the Ghibli Museum in Tokyo. But while Studio Ghibli has long been a cultural phenomenon in Japan, its elevated profile overseas is due largely to the success ÃŽ ¿f two films: Princess Mononoke and Spirited Away. In recent years the studio has developed a strong relationship with US studio Pixar. Before the latter's recent corporate break from Disney, Toy Story director John Lasseter helped to finesse a US distribution deal for Ghibli at the Mickey Mouse giant. But despite Ghibli's increasing profile in the West, Suzuki insists the studio still makes films only for Japanese audiences.

LANGUAGE TESTING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

LANGUAGE TESTING - Essay Example This form of direct oral testing is known variously as "oral interview", "oral test", or "oral examination". I will refer to it here as "oral examination", as I am dealing mainly with examinations in a university context. The literature on language testing has identified a number of unsolved problems with oral examinations. Much of the discussion has centred on the issues of validity and reliability, but problems in the practical administration of oral examinations have also received comment. The fundamental problems with oral examinations are those of reliability (i.e. the consistency with which different examiners mark the same test, or with which the same examiner marks a test on different occasions) and validity (i.e. whether or not an oral test assesses what it sets out to assess). The reliability of oral examinations has been seen as a serious problem right from the start of research on this topic. Spelberg et al. (2002) report very low correlations, averaging only .41, between the marks of different examiners, although Taguchi (2005) points out that "the nine examiners who marked sixteen candiates [ . . . ] in this study did not have marking schemes, were given no training, were unstandardized and were given no criteria for judging candidates ability", so the discrepancies in their judgements are perhaps not such a surprise. Spelberg (2000) describes the usual ways of testing oral ability as "impressions from memory or haphazard interviews" and writes that "the vast majority of cases [ . . . ] are not reliably separated into levels of speaking ability by this approach, because of the complexity of the language and non-language factors involved". Michael (2001) states that for tests based on free conversation "the problems of sampling, and reliable scoring ar e almost insoluble, unless a great deal of time and many

Evaluation report of NLA and Work Based Learning Essay

Evaluation report of NLA and Work Based Learning - Essay Example I believe it is very essential and undeniable for everyone as well as for me that educational qualifications and continuous self-assessments help in grooming and developing ones perspective as well as refining his/her understanding regarding the possessed potentials when defining their career plan. Undoubtedly, this course has played a pivotal role in structuring and polishing my knowledge substantially, helping me to redefine my career goals and plans further. Overall, it guided me to have a great career ahead. In context to the above-mentioned points, the main objective of this essay is to evaluate the importance of the Negotiated Learning Agreement (NLA), contributing to my abilities and critical understanding. The essay also emphasises the value and the importance of the work base knowledge in my career. It also reflects the way the education and the career goals have changed my viewpoints towards life in the competitive job market environment as well as in the employer organisation as well. Ultimately, it can be asserted that the course has helped me to review and access my performance throughout the NLA process and during my placement process. To be noted in this regards, the work-based learning program, in lieu of the placement process has helped me to overcome many problems and issues about which I lacked previous understanding, further helping me to clear the interview mitigating the gaps between the requirements of the employer and my competencies. Nevertheless, it has helped me t o notify the gaps, which may arise in the future related to my career and take preventive measures accordingly. It also clarifies my doubt of how to develop my CV and to build a better career. I am a marketing management student. It was owing to my passion towards organisational management that I ultimately decided to select this management course. I believe that it will help me to meet the criteria that are needed to build a strong career in the field of

Module Matinee 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Module Matinee 6 - Essay Example excellent message that it is not the race, cultural difference, prejudice or social disparity that makes people to hate each other but it is the habit of blaming others for the frustration and problems they are going through their lives that makes them to hate each other. the people from other ethnic background and culture. They think that it is because of their presence that they are not able to find happiness and peace in life. Farhad thinks that people from white ethnic background do not accept him as one of them. He is being compared to the terrorists just because he follows Muslim tradition. Jean thinks that she has to suppress her true emotions as she fears being called as ‘racist’ if she expresses them. Chrsitine thinks that she suffered molestation at the hands of a police officer from white ethnic background as she belonged to black ethnic background. In this way, every character in the movie thinks that people from other ethnic backgrounds are responsible for the misery and disharmony they are experiencing in their lives. In the beginning, the characters are shown displaying their external behavior patterns. For example, Jean expressing her fear when she sees Anthony and Peter crossing her, Officer Ryan insulting Christine and Cameron, Farhad being aggressive ‘perceiving’ discrimination at the hands of the shopkeeper in the gun shop, etc. However, as the movie continues, we get to see the other side of these characters. We feel sorry for Officer Ryan when we see that his father is suffering from painful disease and he has to watch him in pain helplessly. Jean’s insecurity about her relationship with her husband makes us feel that it is her personal frustration that is making her to behave negatively towards people from other ethnic background. We get to see a very warm side of Daniel’s personality when he tells his daughter that they have left the ‘bad’ neighborhood where there is violence. Slowly, the movie reveals the true reasons that

Policy Statements Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Policy Statements - Coursework Example According to the report findings  the public and community interest and involvement in major decision making process is also very important in policy statement especially the educational policy statements. The policy statement formulation should also define various tasks to be accomplished at the end of its implementation phase.   There are various strategies that can be used for successful implementation of policy statement and this should be properly laid down by the governing body formulating the policy statement. The various steps that the policy will take from its formulation to implementation should also be properly outlined in the policy making process. It is also important that a policy statement should consist of various aspects such as the main reason for its action plan.This study highlights that  the policy should also outline a number of guidelines describes the terms of employment conditions. In addition, a sound policy statement should also provide and describes the various relevant authorities regarding the institution or organization in question.  The policy statement must also describe the goals, aims, mission, vision as well as objectives of the institution of concern.  The policy statement can also include both long term and short term goals of the school organization.   This paper will provide a review on the policy statement of the educational systems in the United States.

Reform on The English Libel Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reform on The English Libel Law - Essay Example However, does the Defamation Bill reflect these concerns? This essay seeks to critique the current Defamation Bill (As Amended on Report, ordered to be printed on 5 February 2013) particularly focusing on Clauses 4, 5 and 6 thereof. The said Clauses provide for some of the defences to an action for defamation. Clause 4 Clause 4 refers to the truthfulness of the imputation which if shown by the defendant to be substantially true, then it may be a defence in an action for imputation (Defamation Bill, Clause 4). Additionally, where there are two or more distinct imputations, the defence of truth will not be diminished if the imputations which appear to be substantially true, those not shown to be substantially true do not significantly injure the claimant’s reputation (Defamation Bill, Clause 4). This clause seeks to substitute the previous common law defence of justification (Shaw & Chamberlain, 2011, p. 49). The defendant must show that the imputation made is ‘substantial ly true’, a stand of the common law (Chase v News Group Newspapers Ltd [2002] EWCA Civ 1772). Although there is no definition on what is â€Å"substantially true,† still, there is no ambiguity as to the meaning of truth (Mullis & Scott, 2011, p. 12, citing the Oxford English Dictionary). ... 12). Although it should be the claimant that should have the burden of proof to demonstrate the falsity of an imputation since the former is in a better position to demonstrate such, this is not always true as the facts would wholly rely on the kind of imputation made (Mullis & Scott, 2011, p. 12). The terms â€Å"substantially true† and â€Å"serious harm† on claimant’s reputation, were not defined in the bill and opens a wide interpretation as to its meaning (Mullis & Scott, 2011). Litigation may likely occur especially on the demarcation between those considered as substantially true and which are not, or those considered as a significant injury to a claiman t’s repute (Young, 2011). Further, although the truth may be known, it may nevertheless be difficult to establish (Flood v Times, [2009] EWHC 2375 (QB)), (Young, 2011). There is no criterion to lessen the probability of increasing false information especially as to those which may occur after publication (Young, 2011). It would be hard to comply with the required responsible journalism especially where the imputation was false, but was nevertheless supported by sufficient evidence that the statement was true at the time when such a statement was published by the responsible publisher (Young, 2011). Clause 5 This is the defence of â€Å"Honest Opinion† and sets forth the conditions that it must be a statement of opinion; such opinion is of public interest; the â€Å"honest person could have held the opinion† based on â€Å"a) a fact which existed when the statement complained of was published; and (b)  a privileged statement published before the statement comp lained of† (Shaw & Chamberlain, 2011, p. 49, citing the Defamation Bill).

Public Health of the Developing Country of South Africa Essay Example for Free

Public Health of the Developing Country of South Africa Essay Abstract Studies and statistics have put the cost of one year requirement of standard essential medicines needed for the treatment of AIDS at $ 4000 to $ 6000 in developing countries like South Africa. This cost puts the medicines out of the reach of most of the people infected by HIV in the developing countries. In order to make the medicines available to all the needy people the cost should have been at least 95 percent less. The exorbitant price is because of the cost of the patents. The drugs protected by the intellectual property rights were required to treat diseases like Tuberculosis, in addition to the treatments of HIV/AIDS. Such drugs also included Hepatitis-B Vaccine. There has been a continuous criticism by the social activists and other public health associations, of the action by the World Trade Organization in making the developing countries implement the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement which deals with the protection of Intellectual Property rights relating to the essential drugs. They have also been condemning the attitude of the multinational companies in indulging in excessive lobbying to insist on the implementation of the IP rights protection which will have the effect of enhancing their earnings by charging exorbitant prices for the drugs and for putting the essential drugs and health care beyond the affordability of scores of people in the developing nations including South Africa. However under such circumstances the relationship between the government of South Africa and the international pharmaceutical companies had not been a conducive one – thanks to the implementation of the provisions of TRIPS Agreement. On the decision of the South African Government to pass the Medicines and Related Substances Amendment Act in the year 1997, 39 drug companies joined to initiate legal action against the government. The plea of the drug companies is that the Act gave too much freedom of action to the Health Minister and he acted beyond the legitimate interpretation of TRIPS. It was the endeavour of South Africa to make life saving drugs available at affordable prices. The country wanted to effectively utilize the compulsory licensing opportunities opened by TRIPS so that the prices of the drugs could be put under check. But since the action of the government posed a threat to the earning capacity of the international pharmaceutical companies they went to the extent of entering into litigation with the government of South Africa. Introduction TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) under the authority of the WTO were founded to protect worldwide intellectual property rights. The agreements, governing not only more general intellectual property rights but also those of the pharmaceutical industry, are fairly stringent causing many problems for developing countries especially South Africa which is being ravaged by epidemics which includes AIDS. According to a statistical survey by United Nations[1] 20 percent of the adult population in South Africa tests positive for HIV. The impact of the disease is such that the more than half a million children have been declared orphans. It is also reported that HIV/AIDS related diseases expect to reduce the average life expectancy in South Africa by 20 years in the year 2010. Therefore it can be inferred that the provision of treatment of HIV/AIDS in South Africa is a high priority issue[2]. It has been necessary for South Africa to circumvent part of the TRIPS agreements in an effort to protect its population.   AIDS is taking great toll of the country leaving families without parents and health care hospitals totally unable to cope. The United States currently insists on the TRIPS agreement being strictly adhered to and seems unable, or unwilling, to find a way to help the developing nations with this problem. There have been some efforts made to help them in this respect, for example compulsory licensing and parallel pricing and these methods will be examined in a later section. The negotiation of the TRIPS Agreement has been construed as one that was forcibly introduced by the developing countries against the objection of many of the developing nations. The industrial lobbies (multinational and transnational corporations) have convinced the governments of the developed countries to link the international trade with Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) so that the industrial advancement of the developing countries would be curtailed. This would automatically prevent imitation of technologies and increase the returns on research and development for the developed countries. Monopoly rights granted under IPR were mainly intended to deter the developing countries from advancing on the industrialization. Thus TRIPS Agreement and the protection of IPR have been used to ensure the comparative advantage of the developed countries in terms of the technological development. Under TRIPS countries like India, Brazil which manufactures generic medicines would not have the right to export such medicines with effect from 01 January 2005. This is so despite the fact that the importing countries do have the respective patents covering the drugs. Specifically the least developing countries have put a strong resistance to the requirements of TRIPS especially in the matter of granting the protection rights for the products and processes. While developing countries were required to implement the provisions within one year of reaching the Agreement, the developing countries were given time until the end of the year 2004. In the matter of protection of rights of pharmaceutical products the lease developing countries have been allowed to delay the implementation of TRIPS Agreement provisions till the year 2016. The peculiarity with the provisions of TRIPS is that it allows any country to override the patent right under certain specific circumstances by using the compulsory licensing procedure. For instance when there is a shortage of drugs or the prices of the drugs are too high to make them unaffordable the country can override the patent if the prescribed procedures are followed. This provision of TRIPS presupposes that all the countries do possess the required manufacturing facilities which enable them to use the provisions to produce generic medicines under extraordinary circumstances. But unfortunately many of the developing and least developing countries do not posses such facilities, and hence they would be left with shortage of such drugs. In addition they are also not allowed to import the generics from those countries that possess them. In any case these countries do not have enough power and administrative capabilities to invoke the TRIPS Agreement either due to the reason that they do not possess the know-how required to reengineer the drugs or they fear sanctions from the US and the West[3]. TRIPS Agreement under WTO The TRIPS Agreement is often thought of as one of the three â€Å"pillars† of the WTO (World Trade Organization), trade in goods and services being the other two.[4] TRIPS, initially part of GATT. But becoming part of the WTO brief, was founded to ensure that protection of intellectual property rights was not, of itself, an obstruction to trade and to increase cooperation between members. Under the TRIPS agreement each member state has an obligation to treat all other member states equally. The WTO negotiates between members and helps them to understand and carry out the rules and regulations they have signed up to. It also aids cooperation between members and acts as a watchdog to ensure that the agreement is adhered to. Marketing rights of a patent, when first applied for, are given for a period of 5 years or until the patent is finally approved (whichever is the shorter period) but even during this period members must comply with the rules and regulations as set out in Articles 3 and 4. Because of the nature of the agreement especially as regards pharmaceuticals, it was decided that minimum standards could be used, the USA prefers the higher standards but accepts the minimum as the developing world does not have the capacity to work to the higher standards at the present time. Public awareness of the serious issue of AIDS and other diseases has led to the belief   (by the WTO) that health must, in the final analysis, come before agreements since the spread of AIDS cannot be the sole responsibility of one country. In trying to bridge the gap between the pharmaceutical companies and the developing nations, TRIPS has endeavoured to bring the two sides together by allowing extensions to drugs’ patents but has also allowed some compulsory licensing. Article 3(a) under the TRIPS Agreement states that treatment of all members must be equal,   but Article 3(b) is a get-out clause and Article 4(b) states that all members are equal, unless an †¦agreement was entered into before the WTO agreement.   However, the Council for TRIPS must be informed of any non-observance of Article 3(a) under Article 3(b). The TRIPS Agreement ensures that members discharge their commitments to the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO). Part of the United Nations WIPO was set up in 1974 specifically to direct international treaties and agreements. The Paris Convention on Industrial Property and the Berne Convention on Copyright, two of the major treaties have been brought under the TRIPS umbrella.   The former states that â€Å"members must comply with the obligations they have towards each other† and â€Å"nothing must stand in the way of such obligations†.  Ã‚   However, as noted, there is a get-out clause in cases of emergency which has to be acknowledged by members to the agreements. There is also an agreement that member countries monitor each other for infringements.   Most important in terms of worldwide health problems is Article 67 of TRIPS which states   that developed countries must assist developing countries with the development of their intellectual property rights, it states: â€Å"In order to facilitate the implementation of this Agreement developed country Members shall provide, on request and mutually agreed terms and conditions, technical and financial cooperation in favour of developing and least-developed country members† â€Å"Such cooperation shall include assistance in the preparation of laws and regulations on the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights as well as on the prevention of their abuse, and shall include support regarding the establishment or reinforcement of domestic offices and agencies relevant to these matters, including the training of personnel.†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Programmes to assist the developing nations have already been promoted and are being assisted by the WTO secretariat and WIPO. TRIPS Agreement in Relation to Medicines   Since most pharmaceutical research and development is carried out in developed countries the organisations involved feel that they should be better protected.   Most drugs cost millions and take years to test and develop before being allowed onto the market, the industry naturally want returns by way of profits on sales. AIDS medication has been a particularly important breakthrough since: ‘HIV infects an estimated 45 million persons worldwide†Ã‚   but there are also â€Å"†¦1.86 billion cases of infection with mycobacterium tuberculosis†[5] therefore, it is imperative that something be done to help alleviate this type of suffering which, with the ever growing number of tourists, should be the concern of not only those countries in which these epidemics are raging but every nation whose borders are open to travel from other countries. The TRIPS agreement, currently, seems to err on the side of the drugs’ companies, probably because they have such powerful lobbies and are part of the new world-wide elite of corporations which, according to Janet Dine, are increasingly importing their own ethics into the developing countries and virtually taking over, creating in the process an impoverished and unhealthy nation, they, the indigenous population have to take what is offered often at less than subsistence wages and become more dependant on the corporations who have moved into their countries in search of ever increasing profits. The money the corporations make from taking over in developing countries returns, not to the people of that region, but to their own countries.  Ã‚   With tax incentives and a population who take any work they can get to survive at the lowest rates offered, these Corporations appear to be fuelling a crisis in health for some of the poorest nations in the world.[6] Although The TRIPS agreement does allow for compulsory licensing in an emergency, each country must first negotiate with rights’ holders and must use those drugs obtained under such a license only for the emergency period and not for any commercial gain. Specific areas, such as South Africa, are going through a health crisis which needs the drugs already available to ameliorate it, however, in spite of clause 3(b), they are getting no further forward in their fight to help their citizens to overcome unprecedented death rates that the epidemics are producing. In spite of Articles 30/31, which allow for compulsory licensing, the poorest and least developed nations are fighting against the cost of the use of patents and the epidemics themselves. Compulsory licensing does not adequately cover the needs of such nations in   â€Å"sub-Saharan Africa since they do not have facilities to manufacture their own drugs.†[7] Protection of intellectual property is not part of the culture of many countries, nevertheless, the TRIPS Agreement was signed on 15th April 1994 by 117 nations. The agreement allows intellectual property rights to be â€Å"enforced by trade sanctions†[8] and, although some countries were not in complete agreement, international trade is vital to their economic growth so, however reluctantly, they signed.   Inhibitors, which have done much to control AIDS in the west, cost as much as $10.000 per head annually but international trade is the life blood of developing nations therefore they had little choice but to do so.[9] 4. TRIPS and Developing Countries It has been observed that implementing TRIPS Agreement and recognizing IPR on pharmaceutical products and processes would result in the following problems to the developing countries[10]: The minimum 20 years protection to the IPR would grant a virtual monopoly for a pharmaceutical company over its patented drug and the company would be able to charge exorbitant prices on the drugs without competition which in turn would keep the drug prices very high during the period of protection. It is also not possible to bring any generic equivalent into the market due to the TRIPS Agreement. This would deny the patients cheaper alternative drugs. The product and process patents provide for the protection of the product as well as the technology. Under the TRIPS Agreement the countries are given the right to make application for the protection of patent rights on drugs for a period extending up to twenty years. After the expiation of this period the countries can get the protection extended for further periods to the processes being employed in the manufacture of the drugs. This no doubt creates a monopoly situation on the drugs. Such protection also throw the domestic pharmaceutical producers in the developing countries out of market as they have to compete with large multinational pharmaceutical manufacturers which is not possible for small producers in the developing nations who use cheaper generic alternatives. Moreover such production may not be carried out by them during the 20 year protection period. Under TRIPS Agreement patent rights need to be granted irrespective of the fact that the products are imported or domestically manufactured[11]. This implies that the transnational corporations can supply global markets under the monopoly of patent rights even without producing any medicines in the developing countries by simply importing them into the developing countries. There will be no flow of technology or foreign direct investments into the developing countries as envisaged by the WTO However under Article 66 of the TRIPS the least developed countries were allowed to postpone the application of the provisions relating to the patents for a period of 10 years on specific application.[12] 5. Exceptions to the Patent Protection of Pharmaceuticals    Parallel importing – implying that the developing counties are allowed to import the drugs from the cheaper markets for resale in their respective countries and thereby lower the prices of drugs. Compulsory licensing – under compulsory licensing scheme, the government acting through the courts of law is empowered to provide a license in favor of a third party. Such license may be granted by the government even without the prior consent of the license holder. However the compulsory licensing can be resorted to in cases of national emergencies. The license may also be compulsorily transferred to a third party in case of an extremely emergent situation or where there are circumstances implying any anti-competitive movements by the manufacturers. The compulsory licensing is resorted to by the governments to make the drugs easily available to the poor and needy people at affordable costs. It also ensures that the patent holder is provided adequate compensation for use of the patent. 6. Public Health in South Africa and the Impact of TRIPS Agreement The need for cheaper drugs in South Africa can not be undermined. The impact of AIDS in the country poses the situation of an extreme emergency forcing the implementation TRIPS. The economy of South Africa is likely to get affected by a reduction of 1 percent every year because of the work force getting disintegrated. It is estimated that the life expectancy would be lowered to 50 years in 2010 from 70 years currently. These threats to the economy and population growth would as well be a threat to ‘peace and order’ situations in the country of South Africa[13]. In this context all the problems enumerated above for the developing nations have been faced by South Africa also. In addition when the government wanted to implement the Medicines and Related Substances Control Bill, the US Government vehemently objected to the passing of the law which allowed for parallel importing and compulsory licensing. However amidst lot of pressure on the government and the Parliament the South African government enacted the law in the year 1997.The pharmaceutical lobby backed by the transnational companies in the South Africa not only filed a suit against the promulgation of the law but also indulged in negotiations and threats   to the government to change its stand. The pressure was intense after the year 1997 when the South African government tried to implement a number of policy measures to lower the prices of drugs used in public health. â€Å"The SA policies have focused on such issues as mandatory generic drug substitution, restrictions on inappropriate marketing efforts, registration of generic versions of the cancer drug Paclitaxel (sold as Taxol by Bristol-Myers Squibb), parallel-imports, and compulsory licensing†[14]. It may be noted that despite Article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement that provides for the parallel importing and compulsory licensing the transnational pharmaceutical companies have vehemently opposed the attempts by developing countries like South Africa taking measures for implementing parallel importing and compulsory licensing as these practices would allow these countries to have their requirements of the medicines at cheaper prices which in turn would affect the profits of these transnational companies[15]. It was after the intervention of the AIDS activists and health activists that US came to an understanding in the issue. The government of South Africa insisted that it retains all the original provisions defending its position be retained. The government also wanted to make the fullest use of compulsory licensing and parallel importing which were considered as detrimental to the interests of the American Transnational Companies[16]. How American Corporations Control the Business World A- Business lobbies: Large and small businesses in the United States have been organised into various associations, for example Business Round Tables are national Associations which include membership of the Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) of all the most important trans-national companies and the National Chamber of Commerce includes all sizes of firms.[17] Round Tables have been in existence since 1972, the first was formed by forty-two of the (then) biggest and most important U.S. companies including banks, retailers, Insurance, transport and most of the utilities’ companies. They were designed to enable business to proceed without the destructive competitive basis of the business world. They were described as: â€Å"An association of chief executive officers who examine public issues that affect the economy and develop positions which seek to reflect sound economic and social principles. †¦ the Roundtable was founded in the belief that business executives should take an increased role in the continuing debates about public policy.†[18] The raison d’etre for these firms was the idea that ‘what ever is good for business is good for the American people’. They argued that, employees, purchasers, suppliers etc all have an interest in a business. These associations, they say, represent a cross section of the American public.[19] The idea that ‘what is good for business is good for America’ is patently nonsense since most people are in fact excluded from any rights in this elite world.  Ã‚   Employees have little or no say in the running of their firms and consumers must pay the prices asked, they do have the right ‘not to buy’ which is a somewhat negative view of the process of inclusiveness. David C Korten says that most of the memberships of the Round Tables are confined to white males over the age of 50 whose salaries are enormous. They do not, as claimed, consider that what is good for business is good for America but rather endeavour to maximise their own profits and those of their shareholders by seeking to globalise in areas where they can have an almost free hand to carry out their business practices almost unhindered by the laws of any country they move into. [20] Free Trade has long been an ideal of the American Corporate world which is why the Round Tables campaigned vigorously for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA and created USA-NAFTA to front their interests, the American public, nervous at so much control in so few hands, have been given country-wide blanket assurances through the media.   In spite of the fact that NAFTA was supposed to be a really broad church of interests it is really part of the elite Round Table Associations and has many representatives on advisory committees. The country might have been even more nervous if they had realised that at the time of the creation of these Round Tables the major companies were in fact laying aside their competitive differences to â€Å"reach a consensus on issues of social and economic policy for America†.[21] B- Influence of U.S. Democracy Janet Dine claims â€Å"no single idea is more deeply embedded in modern culture than the belief that economic growth is the key to meeting most important human needs, including alleviating poverty and protecting the environment† [22] which accounts for the greatest growth area in Washington being public relations firms. These firms work hard to protect the images of their corporate clients against a rising tide of discontent which is now manifesting itself throughout the world. It could be thought that they are fighting a losing battle but â€Å"the top fifty public relations firms billed over $1.7 billion dollars in 1991†[23] which gives rise to the question, why are these PR firms so necessary? There is probably no single answer to this question but very little news is given directly to the public without some corporate employee looking at the effect it will have, news and advertising, according to Korten, are almost synonymous.[24] The political system of America has greatly changed in the post war period of more general affluence. The Democratic party has lost its basic identity   the party of the people – as opposed to the Republicans who have always represented business and the wealthier side of the electorate – this being so the Democrats are far more dependant on the need to raise funds for their electioneering and have turned to the corporations who inevitably want quid pro quo for their donations. The mass media are heavily behind the elitist values of corporate America and the amount they are able to pay to PR firms to put across an extremely one-sided policy and both the leading parties needing the financial backing of corporate America, this, says David C Korten, â€Å"This is the sorry state of American democracy†.[25]   He says that voters tend to be seen as a passive homogeneous mass of potential customers who can be told not only what to buy but also what to think and feel.   What is worse, this idea of corporations is spreading, many trans-national companies rely heavily on the corporate idealism of what is good for them is good for the people they sell to.   Mexico and Japan both use those same American firms to tell their populations what they should think and feel and ultimately what they should buy. C- American Democracy   for Sale: â€Å"The Mexican government spent upwards of $25 million and hired many of the leading Washington lobbyists to support its campaign for NAFTA. †¦ Japanese corporations were spending an estimated $100 million a year on political lobbying in the United States and another $300 million building a nationwide grassroots political network to influence public opinion†. [26] Canada, Britain and the Netherlands’ governments employ public relations’ firms in America to help them lobby and draft laws that will be favourable to the business elites in their own countries. These companies try to sell the idea of ‘corporate libertarianism’ [27]which is supposed to allay the fears of those who have an idea that all is not well in the corporate world of business, it is possible to claim that these corporations are in fact in the act of ‘taking over the world’ and with the resources piling up behind them it could well happen in the not too distant future. The United States and Higher Levels of Protection. To add to this theme of a world take-over by corporate America, the signatories to TRIPS have begun to rethink intellectual property protection.[28] This is bad news for those under-developed countries which rely on drugs from the western world to protect their citizens from ravaging epidemics. Rosalyn S Park says: â€Å"Poor, developing nations have been most affected by the patent protection laws and resulting high drug prices, yet these nations also harbor the highest number of HIV-positive people. Consequently, the vast majority of people in need of HIV/AIDS medicines simply cannot afford them†. [29] In 2006 new protection laws will come into force which all members must adhere to. This will have a devastating effect on the millions of people in countries too poor to have their own drugs’ businesses, they will become more reliant upon those better protected, developed countries making vast profits from the countries least able to pay. Neither the USA nor the European Union appear greatly interested in aiding those countries with the greatest needs and the least ability to pay.   Admittedly concessions have been made as regards agricultural and textile concessions but this has been at the cost of allowing higher property rights which is a swings-and-round-a-bouts situation.   It would be much more useful to South Africa specifically and to the developing world in general, if the costs of patented drugs could be either brought down or, as a common sense gesture of good will, eliminated completely until such time as the AIDS epidemic was at least brought down to manageable proportions. In spite of â€Å"several different types of drugs on the market which help combat AIDS and AIDS related illnesses†[30] not enough are getting through to the developing countries as the multinationals are still insisting on not just the status quo as regards intellectual property rights but even higher levels.[31] They appear to be driven only by the profit motive and the perceived necessity for free trade paying little attention to the suffering caused in the developing world. Nor are they taking a long term view, highly contagious diseases are rife in the developing world, therefore, with the modern freedom of travel, no country can ever be safe from the same epidemics.   Even with modern drugs to combat them, new strains will develop, new drugs will have to be found and costs will escalate. Drugs now exist which allow people with AIDS to live a reasonably normal life including returning to work, it would in fact be in the interests of the drugs’ companies to allow South Africa to use them, dead people have no use for drugs nor anything else that the multi-nationals may wish to sell them. Conclusion The TRIPS Agreement was a milestone in patent protection of intellectual property rights and was considered to be a financial safeguard for research investment, however, it also had the effect of pricing some pharmaceuticals out of the reach of many nations most in need of the most recently patented medicines.   Before the TRIPS agreement, governments had been able to make compulsory licence orders to produce drugs at lower prices in their own countries, after the agreement, although still possible, it is much more difficult and thus more difficult to protect their citizens from the epidemics which are wreaking havoc in their countries. It is important to protect intellectual property rights but it is far more important to protect people’s lives but the balance currentlppears to be largely towards the greater protection of pharmaceutical industries. TRIPS allows compulsory licensing and parallel pricing but underdeveloped countries such as South Africa are being prevented from using them because of the threat of trade sanctions and trade is vital to their economies. It is necessary to protect peoples’ work and investment and research must be encouraged especially into life-threatening diseases. Corporations who invest time and money into producing drugs to cope with these scourges should reap the rewards of their labour.   However, many drugs’ companies are seeing such enormous returns on their investments that concessions should be made to underdeveloped countries which so desperately need the medications produced by these huge giants of industry. In spite of concessions in the TRIPS agreement, corporations do appear to be protected at the expense of people’s lives. Public health should be and is a priority in the west where governments can afford to buy the health of their citizens. Unfortunately, this is not the case in the poorer, less developed countries where governments are struggling to find ways to access drugs and yet to maintain a healthy trading relationship with the countries which hold the patents to these drugs. Good health is the basic right of every citizen of every country wherever possible. More goodwill is necessary on the part of the western world and America in particular to allow compulsory licensing and parallel pricing to be used without the threat of trade sanctions.  Ã‚   Epidemics do not respect borders, they can be carried by people to all corners the world, what was a third world problem yesterday is our problem today, world health is an issue that no country can ignore therefore although corporations must be allowed fair returns on their investments it must not be at the expense of world health. It is quite apparent that TRIPS Agreement has not taken into account the public health needs of the developing nations while formulating the clauses relating to the protection of IPR in respect of pharmaceutical needs. The Agreement has not specified any particular obligations towards those governments granting the IPR for pharmaceutical products. The Agreement has also not considered the need for public health in the developing countries and grossly ignored the interests of the patients of these countries. There are a number of factors that the developing countries have to take into account including the implication of the TRIPS Agreement and the patent protection under the Agreement in the provision of medical facilities and adequate public health to the people of the respective developing countries. â€Å"At the end of the day it must be recognized that the poorer residents of the world’s least affluent nations cannot pay even the marginal cost of drugs that might save their lives or permit them to become productive workers†[32]. Bibliography    Conceicao Soares (2007)‘The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 280 David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 Duane Nash, â€Å"†¦VI, Foreign International Law South Africa’s Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997† 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis) Fact Sheet ‘Developing Countries’ Transition Periods’ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/factsheet_pharm04_e.htm#pharmsandags p1 F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal ‘Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing Nations’ Journal of International Economic Law (2002) p 939 Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.157 J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of Age: Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.6 John A. Harrelson, â€Å" IV. Note: Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis: Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion† 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis) Kara M. Bombach ‘The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS’ http://academic.udayton.edu/health/06world/africa01.htm p1 Lisa Foreman (2007)‘Trade Rules, Intellectual Property and the Right to Health’ Comparative Program in Health and Society Munk Centre for International Studies University of Toronto Ethics International Affairs Vol. 21 No3 p 342 Louise Sylvan ‘TRIPS: Protecting Intellectual Property or Putting Profits Before People’ Online Opinion http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1968   p1 Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document.p1 N.B. Zaveri (1999) Success often comes to those who dare and act, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and Peoples Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p1 Patric Bond ‘US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs’ Alternative Information and Development Centre http://www.aidc.org.za/?q=book/view/156 p1 Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) ‘Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p32 Rosalyn S Park, The International Drug Industry: What the Future Holds for South Africa’s HIV/AIDS Patients, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, p.3 Z. Mirza (1999) WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health: impacts and strategies, The Networks Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Association for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 27       [1] United Nations (2004) Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: United Nations [2] Ross Brennan and Paul Baines (2005) ‘Is there a morally right price for anti-retroviral drugs in the developing world’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 15 No 1 p 32 [3] Conceicao Soares (2007)‘The HIV/AIDS crisis and corporate moral responsibility in the light of the Levinasian notions of proximity and the Third’ Business Ethics: A European Review Vol. 16 No 3 p 280 [4] www.wto.org (Frequently asked questions about TRIPS in the WTO). [5] Duane Nash, â€Å"†¦VI, Foreigh International Law South Africa’s Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act of 1997† 15 Berkeley Tech. L J. 485(lexis) [6] Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.157 [7] John A. Harrelson, â€Å" IV. Note: Trips, Pharmaceutical Patents, and the HIV/AIDS Crisis: Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion† 7 Wid. L. Symp. J . 175(lexis) [8] Ibid [9] Ibid [10] Z. Mirza (1999) WTO/TRIPS, pharmaceuticals and health: impacts and strategies, The Networks Drug Bulletin, Sept-Dec 1999, Vol. 8, No. 5/6, Association for Rational Use of Medication in Pakistan p 27 [11] Medecins sans Frontieres (1999) Access to HIV/AIDS medicines in Thailand, Medecins sans Frontieres Report to the National AIDS Committee of Thailand, August 1999, MSF website, www.accessmed-msf.org/msf/accessmed/accessmed.nsf/html/4DTS2? Open Document. p1 [12] Fact Sheet ‘Developing Countries’ Transition Periods’ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/factsheet_pharm04_e.htm#pharmsandags p1 [13] Kara M. Bombach ‘The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS’ http://academic.udayton.edu/health/06world/africa01.htm p1 [14] Patric Bond ‘US Policy toward South Africa and Access to Pharmaceutical Drugs’   Alternative Information and Development Centre  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.aidc.org.za/?q=book/view/156   p1 [15] Louise Sylvan ‘TRIPS: Protecting Intellectual Property or Putting Profits Before People’ Online Opinion http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1968 p1 [16] N.B. Zaveri (1999) Success often comes to those who dare and act, paper presented at Brainstorming Workshop on WTO Agreements and Peoples Concerns, New Delhi, Oct/Nov 1999 p1 [17] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 [18] Ibid [19] Ibid [20] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.144 [21] Ibid [22] Janet Dine, The Governance of Corporate Groups, Cambridge University Press, 2000.p.156 [23] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.146 [24] Ibid [25] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, p.147 [26] Ibid [27] David C Korten, When Corporations Rule the World, Earthscan Publication Ltd. London,pp.147-148 [28] Rosalyn S Park, The International Drugs Industry: What the Future Holds for South Africa’s HIV/AIDS   Patients, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, 2002.p.1 [29] Ibid [30] Rosalyn S Park, Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, 2000, p.2 [31] J H Reichman, The TRIPS Agreement Comes of Age: Conflict or Cooperation with the Developing Countries? P.6 [32] F.M. Scherer and Jayashree Watal ‘Post-Trips Options for Access to Patented Medicines in Developing Nations’ Journal of International Economic Law (2002)   p 939

Internet Working Essay Example for Free

Internet Working Essay In this paper the functions and the Structure of the Internet is discussed in detail along with the help of figures and diagram in order to make understand that what the internet really is and how it works . The paper discusses in detail the main functions and parts of Internet and how they work according to their functions and features . the Internet has opened the vistas of knowledge for the world so The world has become a global village where the people live their life on the Internet . It has no boundaries or barriers, It is open to all who have access to Internet using computer . The e-commerce and online business has really facilitated the people now days . They can draw money , deposit money , transfer money and shop nay thing on internet in seconds . furthermore people can also share the information with the people living in various countries in research work the internet has really brought a revolution in the world of Information Technology . Introduction: The internet has been a useful source of information for the public and made things possible which were impossible in the past . Such as emailing has accelerated the process of Mailing and it hardly takes seconds to reach in any part of the world as the Client are connected to Server and the Server connects the clients to world wide web . it is like cob web which keeps connected to all users at the same time . The Internets growth has become explosive and it seems impossible to escape the bombardment of www. coms seen constantly on television, heard on radio, and seen in magazines. Because the Internet has become such a large part of our lives, a good understanding is needed to use this new tool most effectively. This whitepaper explains the underlying infrastructure and technologies that make the Internet work. It does not go into great depth, but covers enough of each area to give a basic understanding of the concepts involved. For any unanswered questions, a list of resources is provided at the end of the paper. Any comments, suggestions, questions, etc. are encouraged and may be directed to the author at the email address given above. The Internet Frame Work: As the Internet is a global network of computers each computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address. Internet addresses are in the form nnn. nnn. nnn. nnn where nun must be a number from 0 255. This address is known as an IP address. (IP stands for Internet Protocol; more on this later. ) The picture below illustrates two computers connected to the Internet; your computer with IP address 1. 2. 3. 4 and another computer with IP address 5. 6. 7. 8. The Internet is represented as an abstract object in-between. (As this paper progresses, the Internet portion of Diagram 1 will be explained and redrawn several times as the details of the Internet are exposed. )

Woodrow Wilsons Scandal

Woodrow Wilsons Scandal Woodrow Wilson was the 28th president of the United States. Wilson was born on December 28th, 1856, he was an American scholar who was best remembered for leading the United States into World War I. Woodrow was born into a religious family and also very well-educated. In 1885 future President Wilson married his first wife, Ellen Louise Axson. Ellen was the daughter of a Presbyterian minister. Wilson and Axson met at her fathers church in Rome, Georgia, they were instantly attracted to each other, together they shared a strong religious belief and an even stronger passion for arts and reading. A year into Woodrows presidency, Ellen succumbed to kidney failure brought on by Brights disease. Brights disease is involving chronic inflammation of the kidneys. The main individual involved in Woodrow Wilsons engagement/affair was Woodrow Wilson who was the 28th president and was born in 1856. Ellen Louise Axson who was born in Savannah, Georgia, graduated from Romeis Female College and was recognized for her artistic ability, she had 3 children and one died in 1905, then Axson died on August 6, 1914. Woodrow married Ellen Axson and had 3 children, Axson died then a year later after her death Wilson married Edith Galt.Galt was married to Wilson in 1915 and believes to be a descendent of Pocahontas. Wilsons affair started in his marriage with Ellen and went through his marriage with Edith. Woodrow had an affair with Mary Allen Hulbert. Hulbert met Wilson when he showed up at her door and said he was on a mission of national urgency. This scandal has many facts to prove what has happened. It was during Wilsons tenure at Princeton University that Ellen found herself in the role of the betrayed wife (Wilson A portrait). During this time Ellen had sent Wilson alone to Bermuda while she stayed home to watch after the children. Wilson was absolutely devastated by Ellens death she had been his greatest emotional support. And now suddenly she was taken away (Wilson A portrait). Before Ellen passed away she was always concerned with her husbands well being, she had the family physician make a promise to her to always make sure to look after Wilson when she no longer could. Wilson wandered alone through the White House. He was heard by his staff to mutter one phrase, again and again My God, what am I to do? (Wilson A portrait). Wilson wanted to love and support a strong woman like Ellen. Wilson was not a widower for long. He met and married Edith Bolling Galt, in December 1915 (Woodrow Wilson marries Ellen Axson in Sav annah, Georgia). The couple was introduced by Wilsons cousin and a mutual friend. In 1916 when the presidential campaign started to fire up, many of the advisors for Wilson worried that his marriage to Edith so soon after his first wifes death would become a political responsibility. Edith Bolling Galt, with whom he was in love, and would soon marry (An Honorable Affair). Edith was always at Wilsons side but her presence irritated and frustrated Wilsons advisors. ..she was accused of signing Wilsons signature without consulting him, though she insisted this was not the case and blamed the accusations on her husbands political opponents (Woodrow Wilson marries Edith Bolling Galt). In October of 1919 Wilson suffered a stroke while touring the nation to promote his plan for the League of Nations, the League of Nations was an international organization designed to prevent any further conflicts like World War I. During Wilsons recovery from the stroke Edith consumed the role of steward, screening his mail and official papers. Hulbert and Wilson met in 1907 in midwinter on the island of Bermuda. She was 44 and temporarily alone, on her yearly escape from a loveless marriage in Massachusetts. Wilson was 50, then president of Princeton University, also vacationing alone, decompressing from a grueling fight with university trustees and a popular dean over the disposition of private endowments to the graduate school. Ellen, was back in New Jersey, ailing, beset by a depression that strained their marriage (An Honorable Affair). In Bermuda the bougainvillea, a flower, was in bloom. Bermuda was the setting for an affair, Hulbert owned Shoreby, a huge, estate on the island. Hulbert entertained governors and captains of industry like Mark Twain. She was everything the Princeton president was not, vivacious, free spirited, and fun loving. Hulbert was to have said; if any letters are to exist they would only be from Wilson and give him a bad reputation. Wilson was said to ha ve been a virgin until his first marriage at 28. His long face and glasses gave him a look of impossible correct thinking, and the high starched collars and stovepipe hat in which he was frequently photographed in. Wilson seemed more modern but also unapproachable. The story of the alleged love affair, more or less, died with her Dearest friend is how the married Woodrow Wilson addresses his most ardent letters to Hulbert. With infinite tenderness is how he signs them. He was smitten (An Honorable Affair). The time of this affair ranges from 1885 to 1961. In 1885 Wilson married Ellen Axson, although they both became instantly attracted to each other they did not marry until 1885, because Ellen was unwilling to leave her heartbroken father. 27 years later, Wilson became president and Ellen became the 28th first lady; of those who knew Ellen in the White House they described her as calm and sweet, a motherly woman, pretty, and refined (Ellen Axson Wilson). In 1914 Ellen died at the age of 54, it was still the Victorian Age. Doctors didnt share any prognosis they didnt know of with the patient or the patients family, but Dr. Grayson knew Ellen, she was a steel magnolia who demanded the truth. A year after Ellens death Wilson married Edith Galt in 1915. Edith, who claimed to be directly descended from Pocahontas, was the wealthy widow of a jewelry store owner and a member of Washington high society (Woodrow Wilson marries Edith Bolling Galt). In 1916 Wilson had an affair with Mary Allen Hu lbert. Theirs may have been the most proper and dignified and discreet and downright honorable illicit affair in history. Hulbert, the woman in the hotel room, was said to have possessed compromising letters that attested to a lengthy extramarital dalliance between herself and Wilson (An Honorable Affair). 1919, Wilson had suffered a stroke. 8,000 miles in 22 days had cost Wilson his health, Wilson had just cut his tour short of the country to promote the League of Nations. Wilsons suffered constant headaches, collapsing from exhaustion in Colorado, he managed to return back to Washington to suffer a near-fatal stroke on October 2nd. Wilson left office in March of 1921, he and a partner established a law firm, Wilson died at his home on February 3, 1924 at the age of 67. Woodrow was buried in the Washington National Cathedral and he was the only president to be buried in the nations capital. Circumstances surrounding this case are results of an affair between Woodrow Wilson and Mary Allen Hulbert. That a serious sex scandal would have been devastating to Wilsons presidency, and eroded his moral authority at a critical time in history (An Honorable Affair). Hulbert said that any letters that could possibly exist would only hurt Wilsons credit and further burnish his good name. When rumors of an affair initially surfaced during Wilsons first presidential campaign in 1912, his opponent, Teddy Roosevelt, peremptorily dismissed them: You cant cast a man as a Romeo when he looks and acts so much like an apothecarys clerk (An Honorable Affair). Wilson had an eventful eight-years of presidency, the gossip of Mary Hulbert then known as by her married name, Mary Peck, escalated. , the presidents second wife, tens of thousands of his personal papers became available for publication by the Liberty of Congress (An Honorable Affair). These papers, Hulbert sold to an official biographe r, long after Wilson passed. All along There had long been rumors to that effect. Hulbert and Wilson had long denied them. But now there was, apparently, an offer on the table (An Honorable Affair). This rumor was never proven because Mary Hulbert wouldnt talk, Ms. Hulbert claims that the only letters that could possibly be found would be the ones that Wilson sent to her. The government was affected in many ways. enjoyed having her sit in the Oval Office while he conducted business, which led to accusations that she had undue influence over who was allowed access to the president (Woodrow Wilson marries Edith Bolling Galt). At this time Wilson was recovering from his stroke, Galt assumed the role of looking after Wilson, screening his mail and official papers. In their first year she convinced her scrupulous husband that it would be perfectly proper to invite influential legislators to a private dinner, and when such an evening led to an agreement on a tariff bill, he told a friend, You see what a wise wife I have! (Ellen Axson Wilson). The Wilsons preferred to being without an inaugural ball and the First Ladys entertainments were simple, but her disorganized feelings made her partys successful. The story of the alleged hotel room bribe appeared in the 1925 series of memories Hulbert wrote for the Liberty magazine, a year after Wilsons death. When i t was published, there was a one-day furor in Congress. Rep. Frank Reid, an Illinois Democrat, introduced a resolution demanding an investigation (An Honorable Affair). If Hulbert would have been right there had been much effort to give up on an innocent man and underestimate the Constitution for political gain. During this time he would abandon his lifelong caution, initiating a series of moves that would lead to his resignation from Princeton (An Honorable Affair). This would cause a political career that would lead him first to the governorship of New Jersey and then to one of the great presidents in American history. Wilson lost stature as an academic administrators but gained a national reputation as a fighter for intellectual freedom and an enemy of the monied elite (An Honorable Affair). Speaking before the next graduating class when his letters indicated a growing passion for Hulbert, he told the graduates that there are things one does for duty and things one does for joy. Had President Wilson not met Edith Galt and had been defeated in the 1916 re-election, Wilson might have married Mary Hulbert. But for a presidential candidate to have acknowledge any serious intentions toward her, a divorce, would have been, social and political suicide.The story of her alleged love affair, more or less, died with her (An Honorable Affair). Edith Wilson may never have been able to read the letters her husband wrote to Hulbert but in her last years she told Wilsons scholars Arthur S. Link and David W. Hirst that there probably wasnt much of anything in them. For the rest of Ediths life she was dedicated above all else to preserve her husbands image of greatness. As the 1916 presidential campaign heated up, many of Wilsons advisors worried that his whirlwind courtship and marriage to Edith so soon after his first wifes death would become a political liability (Woodrow Wilson marries Edith Bolling Galt). A man and a woman loved and respected each other. They did not permit whatever passion they shared to destroy marriage. What happend, happend. They took it it to their graves. Whatever degree of intimacy they enjoyed, the details should remain as one might argue these matters should remain completely, eternally, gloriously private (An Honorable Affair). Hulbert always found men with agendas, and politicians more attractive but she always denied it. It was said by Gene Weingarten that Wilson and Hulbert loved each other and that the relationship they had was a mystery to Wilsons presidency. Weingarten also had the question of But were they lovers? (An Honorable Affair). When the married Wilson addressed his letters to Hulbert it would start with Dearest friend and signed With infinite tenderness. Wilson told Hulbert he missed her when she was not in Bermuda while he was. Yet she must have instinctively realized that Wilsons secret romance had been restorative and life enhancing to h im and that, she, too, owed a debt of gratitude to Mary Hulbert (An Honorable Affair).

My magical visit :: essays research papers

My Magical Visit I remember the visit like it was yesterday. The year was 1990, and it was the month of June. I hadn’t been off for more than two weeks, and I was bored out of my mind. It really takes a lot to keep a seven year old busy. That’s when it happened. My dad told me that tomorrow we would be going to visit somewhere special. He told me that he also visited this place when he was a kid. I remember the night before we left, I couldn’t sleep at all.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  That somewhere special was his family’s summer home, which was located in Attica, New York. He said it was a real treat to go there, because he had lived in the city. His mother, who is my grandma, used to take the children there for weeks on end during the summer months. Now it was my turn. I finally got the opportunity to see why going out there was so special.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To this day, I can still picture the car ride up there quite well. At that time my dad was driving in a white Ford Taurus. We were staying the weekend, so we each packed a bag with a couple of changes of clothes. We also packed some good food, because my dad and I love to eat. I can still remember my dad cranking up the radio, which was blasting out the tunes on Oldies 104. I also remember the warm summer breeze that was hitting my face as we rolled down the long country roads. Although it only took forty-five minutes to get there, I must have asked, â€Å"Are we there yet?† about five times. Finally my dad said that we would be there in a little less than five minutes. We turned right on Nesbit, which is the road where the house is located. The road was made of stones. I can still hear the stones shooting up against the wheel wells as the car roared down the road. Finally, we arrived at the summer home and pulled into the driveway.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The white house with red shutters that was set back about five acres. The house included two bathrooms, four bedrooms, a kitchen, and a dining room. There were also two giant pole barns that were located to the left of the house. Pine trees outlined the massive plot of land.

An Analysis of Geoffrey Hill’s Little Apocalypse :: Little Apocalypse

An Analysis of Geoffrey Hill’s  Little Apocalypse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seamus Heaney’s â€Å"The Redress of Poetry† reveals the idea that â€Å"it is the imagination [of poetry] pressing back   against the pressure of reality (1).†Ã‚   The two opposing forces of imagination and reality are active in Geoffrey Hill’s   â€Å"Little Apocalypse.†Ã‚   The poem deals with the personal religious conflict of Friedrich Hoderlin (1770-1843), a German lyric poet.   Hill focuses on Hoderlin’s struggle with his strong belief in Greek mythology and then Contemporary Protestant theology. From this reality Hill utilizes Greek and Christian imagery.   Hill’s imagination complements Hoderlin’s reality and results in an artistic retelling and vivid depiction of the German poet’ strife.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The first stanza addresses Holderlin’s relationship with Christianity, specifically his mother’s desire for him to be a pastor. His mother was very up front with her wishes and sent him to â€Å"monastery schools† at Maulbronn and the theological seminary in the University of Tubingen (Witte 1).   In relation to â€Å"Apocaplypse† Hill writes that Holderlin is â€Å"close enough to survive the sun’s primitive renewing fury (33).†Ã‚   The sun represents Christianity and though its teachings as well as its unyielding methods of indoctrination (â€Å"primitive renewing fury†) surround him at school and home, he is â€Å"close enough† to his own religious beliefs rooted in Greek mythology (Witte 1).   The â€Å"scorched vistas† suggest that Holderlin’s perspective on religion had been modified or brought into question from his parochial education.   Hill implies that Holderlin considers his classmate s as â€Å"injured† most likely in a spiritual sense but continue to be brave. Despite the injured, Hill asserts â€Å"this man [Holderlin] stands sealed against their injury.†Ã‚   The image of Holderlin standing firm greatly contrasts with that of the injured and the use of â€Å"sealed† symbolizes that he held strong to his beliefs.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The second stanza shifts to images of Greek mythology.â€Å"Hermetic radiance of great suns kept in† has a double meaning. On one hand, his religious convictions are sealed air tight and on the other Hill imagines him as Hermes the ancient god messenger. As the ancient messenger God Hill insinuates that Holderlin himself was a messenger perhaps with a religious message but confused by two different religions. The last three lines refer to the rediscovery of Holderlin’s work that has established him as â€Å"one of the outstanding lyric poets in the German language† and placed him in the ranks of the â€Å"Greatest of German poets (Witte 2).

Free Essay: Passion and Evil in Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

Passion and Evil in The Scarlet Letter In Nathaniel Hawthorn’s novel, The Scarlet Letter, the Puritan society of Salem excludes anyone who is in any way deviant and renders that person sinful. However, the society, the townspeople themselves, is not without fault. However they try to conceal and contain their passions and all their faults because of their fear of exclusion. All the characters in the book that are excluded from society are the most "natural" and true and possess a second-sense perception and almost magical intuition. Hester Prynne's separation from the townspeople is both physical and mental. She is expelled from the town as an adulteress, and she goes to live with her illegitimate daughter to a cottage "not in close vicinity to any other habitation." (68) They are despised by the whole town. Even children throw stones at them and chase them down the street. People do not dare to come close to Hester because of the mark as an outcast. To the townspeople, Hester's character is something different and uncertain from the values that they are used to. "Wherever Hester stood, a small, vacant area - a sort of magic circle - had formed about her, into which †¦ none ventured, or felt disposed to intrude." (206) Hester is destined to forever wear a scarlet letter "A" on her chest - "A" for "adulteress" - a sign of her sin, shame and separation from the righteous people. However, by being separated from the Puritanical town of Salem and all its prejudices, Hester is able to look at the people objectively and see much she was not able to see before. "Walking to and fro, with those lonely footsteps, in the little world with which she was outwardly connected, it now and then appeared to Hester that [the scarlet letter] gave her a sympathetic knowledge of the hidden sin in other hearts. (73) The people of the town are so busy covering up their faults and hiding their human passions, that they cannot see their own or each other's faults. Hester, who wears her Cain's mark of exclusion openly, does not have to worry about the opinion of others, and gains an intuition - an insight into the hearts of the people who throw her out. Hester's mark of shame becomes a mark of being different, a mark of nonconformity.

Parenting Styles and Prosocial Behavior Essay

Parents often play a large role in the development of their son’s or daughter’s morality, social behavior, education, habits, and many other areas. Therefore, parents contain tremendous power when it comes to shaping their offspring. Due to this tremendous amount of power, researchers had an inclination that certain parenting styles have effect on their child’s BMI. The evidence found in the study suggests that there is a possible relation between the type of parenting styles and the fluctuation of their children’s BMI. The researchers of this article, based upon past studies, hypothesized that the four major parenting styles they presented would should greater increases in BMI than other styles (Fuemmeler, 2012). The researchers funded by several government grants such as the National Cancer Institute Grant and National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Grant found an effective way to carry out this study. First, the researchers gave the individuals (ages11-21) being tested a survey about their parents to determine the style the parent used. The survey was broke down into tests. One test determined acceptance of the parent, while the other determined control. Based on the answers given by the child, the parent’s styles were determined and were broken up into four categories. These four categories were permissive, authoritarian, disengaged, and balanced. As a result, the categories would serve as the independent variables in the study. Once the child’s parenting type was established, the researchers monitored the kids BMI over an eleven year span to watch for any increases or decreases. The BMI, the dependent variable in the study, showed greater increases in the kids who had a balanced style parenting. This result surprised the researchers because they believed that the authoritarian and disengaged parent types would show greater increases. Although, the authoritarian and disengaged parent types didn’t show increases in BMI more than the balanced style, they did associate to lees leveling off of trajectories over time (Fuemmeler, 2012). This study showed relation between the parenting styles and BMI’s of their children, but this study does not present a causal relationship between the two. It cannot show a causal relationship for a number of reasons. One reason is due to the fact that the study refuses to acknowledge factors causing association between parenting styles and BMI. For example, a parent that practices a disengaged style and lives in an obese home environment may encourage poor eating and exercise habits in their kid’s lives. Also in order for the study to demonstrate causation, the researcher would have had to alter the parenting styles and make greater changes to the weight and diet of the individuals being studied (Fuemmeler, 2012). Some things that should have been changed in the study would be the way the measurements were recorded. Instead of having a self-reported height and weight, the researchers should have had their own workers record the measurements for more accuracy. Another flaw in the study was that the style of parenting before adolescence was never examined. Which leaves the question of whether parenting styles in adolescence or pre adolescence has more of an effect on BMI. Fuemmeler, B. F., Yang, C., Costanzo, P., Hoyle, R. H., Siegler, I. C., Williams, R. B., & Østbye, T. (2012). Parenting styles and body mass index trajectories from adolescence to adulthood. Health Psychology, 31(4), 441-449

Barry Lopez “Learning to See”

The article by Barry Lopez â€Å"Learning to See† is a masterpiece of the author’s feelings during his numerous trips into the wild. It is a valuable essay included in the collection â€Å"About This Life. † Furthermore, it is a manifestation of sincere adornment by the nature on the whole and the author’s reasoning on it, in particular. In fact, the article was not that spontaneous for the author, because Barry Lopez got through a long process of reasoning on why people should learn to see the features of nature as being put in deeply in their minds.The author makes emphasis on that the nature can be vividly recollected through positive vision. It is something to get through personal feelings, not just to take a photograph. Going over this thesis statement, Barry Lopez encourages a reader to get into the matter of his article. In fact, it is dedicated to an individual’s reasonable impression of any photo exhibition which once made the author reflec t his own ideas on why people are apart from the gist of nature as such.The author is highly motivated to answer the question of why personal reflections on what an individual can see is more precious than reflecting such episodes of nature or life events on a photograph. The author is at a dead-end when meditating between what he saw and what he wanted to write down to a notebook (Lopez, 2010). The question is that the wanderer and writer, Barry remarked a difference between what a painter or a photographer sees and what he/she draws thereafter. That is the conclusion which Barry Lopez comes to in his rumination on the value of the scenes around.The reasons to state such a strong conclusion fall into the author’s personal meditation on what he once saw at Robert Adams’s exhibition â€Å"To Make It Home: Photographs of the American West, 1965-1985† performed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in June 1989 (Lopez, 2010). Looking at these photographs, Barry remembe red eventually his trip to Arctic when he was as close to a polar bear as never before to fix all details of such an encounter (Lopez, About This Life, 1998). However, Barry provides some ambiguity in his assumptions.Thus, after he has been closer to a polar bear, he admits that it is more convenient to fix details of nature in memories and on a sheet of paper than through photographs (Lopez, About This Life, 1998). In its turn Barry convinces then in the value of photography, as he is a photographer himself. Hence, there is a scope of values and assumptions represented in the author’s discussion. It is seen when Barry Lopez compares clarity of what is described on photographs and paintings with a spectacular story told to him in the childhood (Lopez, About This Life, 1998).The aesthetical feature is amplified many times in Lopez’s meditation. As might be seen, Lopez’s discussion lacks more facts from the real life about how people described their feelings from what they saw. Conversely, Lopez focuses strictly on his own experience. It is possible to assume such reasonable conclusions, as: taking advantage of what memories give would complement the way photographers choose the right foreshortening in order to bring a numinous atmosphere of reality to viewers.As for me, a value assumption on the Lopez’s essay is that it has many things to do with teaching people to nuzzle close to the nature every now and then so as to never lose this connection. The article’s argument could be exceeded by dint of what have the applied art and artistic thought at large achieved so far. Thus, the essay is of aesthetic and teaching value. Reference Lopez, B. (1998). About This Life. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Lopez, B. (2010, May 27). Learning to See. Retrieved June 6, 2010, from About This Life: http://www. barrylopez. com/_i_about_this_life__i__44670. htm

Entrepreneurs are born and made Essay

There are two sides to every debate, and the â€Å"what makes an entrepreneur† argument has raged for decades with neither side able to conclusively prove their case. There are many who believe that an entrepreneur must possess personality traits such as vision, passion and drive that are innate and cannot be taught. Others argue that the skills of evaluating opportunities, motivating people and operating a business are easily passed on to eager students looking to be entrepreneurs. The truth is that both sides are right and it’s time for a compromise: Entrepreneurs are born and made. Some people may be natural entrepreneurs and immediately open a business, others will have studied and trained long and hard before doing so, and while each may enjoy some success, neither will be as successful as the person who possesses the inherent qualities and has spent the time to get the education and experience of the business world. A lot of studies and research have been done on this particular matter. In the beginning many theorists believe that people are either born entrepreneur or they are not. Professor of Psychology Alan Jacobowitz, after conducting interviews to more than 500 entrepreneurs in a period of 3 years, concludes that entrepreneurs are born not made. He maintains that his subjects share common characteristics, which include: restlessness, independence, a tendency to be a loner, and extreme self confidence. Still, other researchers maintain that there are other personality characteristics that are uniquely entrepreneurial including being innovative, action oriented, high on need for personal control and highly autonomous. In addition to this, Jacobowitz also devised a chronological schema of entrepreneurial indicator that he calls the five ages of entrepreneur. The ages are early childhood exposure, trouble in school, problems with work, desire to risk, and bliss in business independence. Jacobowitz believes that  entrepreneurial aptitude is static, which means that people are either born with the said characteristic or not. Initially this theory was supported by the majority of theorists but other scholars criticize that it has yet to be empirically proven. John Kao, in his attempt to define entrepreneur in a more satisfying manner, holds that they are catalysts. They make things happen. They use creativity to conceive new things and zeal to implement them. In short, they are both creator and innovator. They both generate new idea and serve as the human vehicle by which implementation of that idea occurs. They take the ball and run with it, overcoming obstacles in the way. Still others have also suggested what they term as entrepreneurial traits; Thomas and his colleague summarized the following traits in what they call the characteristics of entrepreneur distilled from 50 research studies. These traits include: Total commitment, determination, and perseverance; Drive to achieve and grow; Opportunity and goal orientation; Taking initiative and personal responsibility; Persistent problem solving; Realism and a sense of humor; Seeking and using feedback; Internal locus of control; Calculated risk-taking and risk-seeking; Low need for stat us and power; Integrity and reliability. In many instances, entrepreneurs are often described as impulsive, gambling adventurer, intoxicated by his or her own adrenaline. But though they put themselves at risk, they are actually motivated to achieve something greater, which is what separates them from the rest of people. Research also shows that they are more of a risk manager rather than risk-seeker. In addition, McLelland’s work on achievement motivation may also help to understanding the entrepreneurship. McLelland holds that human beings are driven by 3 motives: the need for achievement (accomplishing things), for affiliation (being with others) and for power (controlling others). Of these, the need for achievement is considered to be most relevant in understanding the entrepreneur. McLelland further maintains that this particular need derives from people who want to be responsible for solving their problems, setting their goals and  reaching these goals through their own efforts. In addition to this they also desire some kind of measure for their accomplishments. This need for achievement is highly linked to entrepreneurial tendency. The entrepreneurial characteristics largely refer to innate qualities, which separate entrepreneurs from other people who do not seem to possess entrepreneurial traits. These qualities are what drive them to have a vision and remain motivated to pursue their lifelong goals either for personal or practical reasons. It is these qualities that in turn provide jobs for people. Trait theories are not completely condoned by entrepreneurial researchers. Though many agree with what Jacobowitz identifies as entrepreneurial-type characteristics, mostly choose a more dynamic perspective on the matter. Trait theory approach does not provide a distinction particularly to those of managers â€Å"because traits that are used to describe the characteristics of an entrepreneur can just as easily apply to many managers: it lacks specificity, refers largely to men, and is not applicable in all cultures. In his book, he further holds that â€Å"entrepreneurship is environmentally determined†, which means that there are certain conditions that will encourage entrepreneurial activities. This includes capital availability, mechanisms for realizing value, and availability of other resources namely human resources, information resources such as libraries and data banks, and infrastructure resources such as inexpensive space. Other factors would also prove useful in cre ating an atmosphere conducive to entrepreneurial environment; media attention, idea-generating institution, and cultural environment. David Burnett claims that entrepreneurs can be supplied if two important factors are present: opportunity and willingness to become an entrepreneur. According to Praag, opportunity â€Å"is the possibility to become self-employed if one wants to.† And willingness is the relative valuation of work in self-employment compared to one’s other options for employment. An individual’s willingness is positive if self-employment is considered as the best available career option, thus inherently affected by the anticipated market incentives that are available for would be entrepreneurs, namely and  economic benefits. The supply of entrepreneurship is dependent on both individual level factors and general economic factors. Therefore policymakers can foster potential entrepreneurs by creating a supportive atmosphere through initiative market reforms that both increase the market incentives and the availability of capital that available for entrepreneurs. Krueger and Brazeal offer a dynamic model in their approach towards understanding the entrepreneurial behaviors. It suggests that entrepreneurial intention is based on the interaction between personal characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, background, and environment (situational context). They base their approach on Shapero’s models of the entrepreneurial event in which entrepreneurship is defined as â€Å"the pursuit of an opportunity irrespective of existing processes†. Basically the model places emphasis on the notion that beliefs, perceptions and assumptions are learned within the context of a given environment (such as business or community). The attitudes and perceptions bring about intentions, which in turn affect behaviors. Through indirect relationship, the Krueger and Brazeal model proposes the following order: individual’s perceptions, attitudes and assumptions are formed through environment or event. This later translates into intention, or potential, which is reflected in behavior. Thus, this approach suggests that entrepreneurial not only can be learned but can vary across individuals and situations. Naffziger even suggests a step further by stating that the intention to act entrepreneurially is influenced by the interaction of several factors namely individual characteristics, individual environment, business environment, an individual’s personal set of goal, and the existence of a viable business idea. They will make comparisons between their perceptions and probable outcome intended targets, intended behavior and actual outcomes. If the outcomes meets or exceeds perceived outcomes, positive behavior toward entrepreneurial endeavors is reinforced. The same thing occurs if otherwise takes place. Though at the dawn of entrepreneurial researches, many believed that entrepreneurs were born, things have changed now. A lot has been understood about the nature of this idea. The processes involved in the business startups have been observed and analyzed to help people better equipped in embarking an entrepreneurial attempt. An increasing number of higher learning institutions, namely tertiary college education, support the idea that entrepreneurship can be taught. While these schools may not produce entrepreneurs of Ford and Gates caliber, persuasive arguments for this notion have been made. The following examples would be cases in point in entrepreneurship-led development strategies further showing that entrepreneurs can actually be made. Conclusively, I would say that while some people are born to be successful entrepreneurs, those who aren’t born with such quality gift can learn and train to be such. Hence, entrepreneurs are born and made.