Wuthering Heights – Describe and comment on the violent incidents in the novel

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte is one of the great classics of British literature. The book is set on the windswept moors of Yorkshire near a small village called Gimmerton. The basic plot is about how much disturbance and trouble a man named Heathcliff causes when the woman he loves marries another man. It is narrated by Mr Lockwood, a gentleman renting a house named Thrushcross Grange, and Nelly Dean who as his servant tells the story of what happened at his residence and another house 4 miles away. This essay will focus on the violence that is so regular in the novel. The first occasions of violence that we are notified of in the novel are the regular thrashings dosed out by the young Hindley Earnshaw to Heathcliff, when they where children. Heathcliff was not the brother of Hindley but a orphan brought back from Liverpool by Hindley's father. Heathcliff's origins are not made clear in the novel but some in the novel brand him a â€Å"Lascar†, hinting at Asian ascendance. He is often better treated than Mr Earnshaw's own children Catherine and Hindley, this becomes clear when Mr Earnshaw buys each of the boys a horse and Heathcliff is given the first choice and picks the most handsome leaving the other to Hindley. When his own handsome horse becomes lame Heathcliff orders Hindley to swap horses or he will tell Hindley's father of the three beatings he had received from Hindley earlier that week. Unsurprisingly Hindley swapped rather than have Heathcliff show his father the bruises that Hindley had left him. When later on in the novel Mr Earnshaw dies his house is left to Hindley. The new master returned with a wife and Heathcliff was treated as a servant instead of the family member he was and was sent out to work in Hindley's newly acquired fields without pay. Hindley also inflicts education on Catherine, which she loathes, and so a strong friendship grows between Cathy and Heathcliff. When the two rebelled against the â€Å"tyrant† and the two started dodging duties and sneaking out at night, Cathy was confined to her quarters every night and Heathcliff was beaten by another servant named Joseph on Hindley's orders as punishment. The next violent incident took place one evening when Cathy and Heathcliff sneaked out one evening to Thrushcross Grange to spy on the two Linton children Edgar and Isabella. They were spotted looking through one of the windows and a servants bulldog was let loose. The dog seized Cathy and she was held in its jaws until the Linton's came running with a servant. Heathcliff was cast away from Thrushcross Grange after they took him for a gipsy. Whereas Cathy was taken into the house and looked after for five weeks until the day before Christmas Eve. When Heathcliff returned home that evening alone Hindley was waiting up for him and he was told if his behaviour continued like it was and he kept leading Cathy astray he would be chucked out of the house for good. Hindley then ordered his servant, Joseph, to give Heathcliff the beating of his life. Things changed a great deal when Cathy came home a spoiled but beautiful young lady. On Christmas Eve the Linton family were invited up to Wuthering Heights for a party and Edgar Linton insulted Heathcliff who then threw hot applesauce all over Edgar in retaliation. This incident started a feud that lasted a lifetime. Shortly after Christmas, Edgar started to visit Cathy regularly at Wuthering Heights and it at this point became clear that the two would marry. On one such visit Cathy pinches her servant Nelly because she would not leave herself and Edgar alone in the room together. When Nelly screamed aloud Cathy denied touching her so Nelly showed the mark to Edgar, Cathy then slapped her servant on the cheek. When Cathy's much younger nephew Hareton cried out for his aunt to stop he was shaken until Edgar Linton intervened, only for him too to be slapped! When the whole raucous finally calmed down, Cathy and Edgar pronounced themselves lovers to the world. Before all this, Hindley's young wife had died during the birth of Hareton and since then Hindley had been a constant drunk. He became a danger to those around him and the servants had taken to hiding his small child from him incase he should cause him harm. On one evening Hindley came home drunk and caught Nelly in the act of hiding Hareton in a kitchen cupboard. He flew into a rage and held a fish knife to Nelly's throat and told her he would make her swallow it. But instead he turned his attention to his child and went to hold him, but when Hareton cried Hindley grew angry and carried the youngster upstairs and held him over the railing. Hindley dropped the child by accident but Heathcliff walked out at just the right time and caught Hareton before he hit the floor. The other violence in the novel occurs in the form of two fights when Heathcliff is a grown man and returns to Wuthering Heights a rich man after three years away. Heathcliff ran away after hearing Cathy, who he loved, was to marry his foe Edgar Linton. When on his return he goes to see Cathy in Thrushcross Grange and will not leave when Edgar tells him to, Edgar jumps from his chair and strikes him on the throat then summons his servants to force him out. The other occurs one eve in Wuthering Heights where Heathcliff is lodging with Hindley. One evening Hindley aspires to kill Heathcliff with the aid of Isabella Edgar's sister and Heathcliff's unhappy bride. When she refused to be a part of it Hindley decided to carry out his plan alone, so when Heathcliff came home that night Isabella would not let her husband in for fear of him getting killed. When Hindley tried to strike Heathcliff from a window in his attempt at murder he missed and Heathcliff smashed the glass pane and knocked Hindley to the ground he then stamped on him severely before ordering the servants and his wife to attend to the beaten man. The violent incidents described in Wuthering Heights are all inter entwined with most in some shape or form involving the very vicious and vengeful Heathcliff.

A Resource-Based View of International Human Resources: Toward a Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities

Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) CAHRS Working Paper Series Cornell University ILR School Year 2005 A Resource-Based View Of International Human Resources: Toward A Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University Scott A. Snell Cornell University Patrick M. Wright Cornell University This paper is posted at [email  protected] http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/284 CAHRS at Cornell University 187 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA Tel. 607 255-9358 www. ilr. cornell. edu/CAHRS WORKING PAPER SERIES A Resource-Based View of International Human Resources: Toward a Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Scott A. Snell Patrick M. Wright Working Paper 05 – 16 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 A Resource-Based View Of International Human Resources: Toward A Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-7622 [email  protected] edu Scott A. Snell Cornell University Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-4112 scott. [email  protected] edu Patrick M. Wright Cornell University Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-3429 [email  protected] edu http://www. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrs This paper has not undergone formal review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is intended to make results of Center research av ailable to others interested in preliminary form to encourage discussion and suggestions. Most (if not all) of the CAHRS Working Papers are available for reading at the Catherwood Library. For information on what’s available link to the Cornell Library Catalog: http://catalog. library. cornell. edu if you wish. Page 2 International Human Resources Abstract CAHRS WP05-16 Drawing on organizational learning and MNC perspectives, we extend the resourcebased view to address how international human resource management provides sustainable competitive advantage. We develop a framework that emphasizes and extends traditional assumptions of the resource-based view by identifying the learning capabilities necessary for a complex and changing global environment. These capabilities address how MNCs might both create new HR practices in response to local environments and integrate existing HR practices from other parts of the firm (affiliates, regional headquarters, and global headquarters). In an effort to understand the nature of such capabilities, we discuss aspects of human capital, social capital, and organizational capital that might be linked to their development. Page 3 International Human Resources Introduction CAHRS WP05-16 Few will argue against the importance of international human resource management (IHRM) in today’s multinational corporation (MNC). A wide range of issues—that varies from global sourcing and off-shoring to regional trade agreements and labor standards to strategic alliances and innovation—all point to the vital nature of IHRM in today’s global economy. In fact, some observers have suggested that how firms manage their work forces is among the strongest predictors of successful versus unsuccessful MNCs (cf. , Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Doz & Prahalad, 1986; Hedlund, 1986). Researchers have adopted a number of different theoretical approaches for studying IHRM. Not surprisingly, the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm has emerged as perhaps the predominant perspective (Wright, Dunford, and Snell, 2002). RBV is particularly attractive to IHRM researchers in that it focuses directly on the potential value of a firm’s internal asset stocks for conceiving and executing various strategies. This perspective departs from traditional I/O economic models of competitive advantage that focus on the structure of markets as the primary determinant of firm performance (Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1984). Also in contrast with I/O economic models, the RBV is based on the assumption that resources are (1) distributed heterogeneously across firms and (2) remain imperfectly mobile over time. Because these asset stocks are unequal, there is the potential for comparative advantage. And when the resources are immobile, that advantage may be difficult to appropriate or imitate, thereby conferring a sustainable advantage In the context of MNCs, the premises of resource heterogeneity and immobility have particular relevance. While the RBV typically focuses on resource heterogeneity across firms, MNCs are unique in that they possess heterogeneity within their asset stocks as well. Because they operate in multiple environments, MNCs are likely to possess variations in both their people and practices that reflect local requirements, laws, and cultures. This variation is a potential source of advantage at a local level, and can provide a global advantage to the MNC as a whole if the knowledge, skills, and capabilities can be leveraged appropriately. Page 4 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 However, while heterogeneous resources are potentially immobile across firms, they may also be immobile within firms (MNCs). Given that scholars have consistently noted the difficulties of integrating people and practices within MNCs (e. g. , Szulanski, 1996; McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001), the challenge of integration remains one of the more perplexing organizational and strategic issues. It is therefore somewhat surprising that IHRM researchers have not addressed this issue more directly. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the literature on RBV and IHRM by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and immobility provide potential advantages to MNCs. However, we also hope to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges of—and capabilities needed to—create resources and integrate them across business units within the MNC. In this sense, we draw upon the knowledge-based view of the firm (KBV) and organizational learning perspectives to look at how practices are created and integrated on a global scale (Grant, 1996; Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997). To organize this discussion, we break the chapter down into three parts: First, we review how the RBV has been applied to IHRM issues to date and discuss the underlying assumptions of this research. Second, we extend the RBV logic to more appropriately deal with issues of practice integration and creation within a globally dynamic environment by turning focus to aspects of learning capabilities. Finally, we discuss the implications for future research and where this extended view of RBV might improve research on a firm’s human resources. IHM, People, Practices, And Competitive Advantage Discussions of IHRM within the RBV framework focus on both the workforce (i. e. , the people) as well as the HR function (i. e. , the structures, policies and practices) (e. g. , Evans, Pucik, & Basoux, 2002; Fey & Bjorkman, 2001; MacDuffie, 1995; Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993). To have a sustainable competitive advantage a firm must first possess people with different and better skills and knowledge than its competitors or it must possess HR practices that allow for differentiation from competitors. Second, these practices or skills and abilities should not be easy for competitors to duplicate or imitate (Wright, Dunford, & Snell, 2001). Page 5 International Human Resources Managing Global Workforces CAHRS WP05-16 Building on the assumptions of heterogeneity and immobility, scholars systematically stress the strategic contributions of people’s knowledge and skills to the performance of firms and sustained competitive advantage (Boxall, 1996). In fact, Barney (1991) developed a model to show how specific assets can be strategically identified to lead to sustainable competitive advantage. Building on this model, McWilliams, Van Fleet, and Wright (2001) argue that human resources, defined as the entire pool of employees, present a unique source of advantage in comparison to domestic labor pools in terms of value, rarity, inimitability, and nonsubstitutability (VRIN). Given the VRIN framework, McWilliams et al. (2001) argued that firms can benefit from a global workforce in two ways: (1) capitalizing on the global labor pools, and (2) exploiting the cultural synergies of a diverse workforce. First, global (heterogeneous) labor pools potentially provide superior human capital. This is because firms can draw from different labor pools to match the different needs of the firm (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). For example, some labor pools may have workers who, on average, have higher cognitive ability or have had greater access to education and training. An MNC could potentially draw from the highest quality labor pools for those functions that require high cognitive ability and education and training (McWilliams et al. , 2001). Second, the use of heterogeneous labor pools potentially increases the quality of global business decision making. When an MNC draws from its multiple labor pools it has the potential to a build diverse and flexible cadre of managers that are better able to bring different perspectives to a decision than a management group based solely from the parent country (Ricks, 1993). That diversity also enables management to be flexible in applying their skills throughout the different parts of the firm. Wright and Snell (1998) discussed theses advantages in terms of resource flexibility and coordination flexibility. While McWilliams et al. (2001) highlighted the benefits of human resource heterogeneity and immobility; they also point out the difficulty in transferring and integrating these resources Page 6 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 within the MNC. Drawing on Szulanski’s (1996) concept of stickiness, they note that the exchanges are made more difficult by â€Å"the lack of absorptive capacity of the recipient, causal ambiguity, and an arduous relationship between the source and the recipient† (Szulanski, 1996: 36). Yet, little research exists discussing how internal stickiness can be overcome in order to maximize the benefits of a global workforce while overcoming the challenges of integration and coordination. Managing Global HR Functions Placing people as the source of sustainable competitive advantage moves us to the dilemma of how best to manage their knowledge, skills, and abilities. Within the RBV literature, issues of resource heterogeneity and immobility underlie the inevitable tension between local responsiveness and global integration in MNCs (cf. Bae & Lawler, 2000; Brewster, 1999; Fey & Bjorkman, 2001; Sparrow, Schuler & Jackson, 1994). Local responsiveness and the value derived from customization implies variation—i. e. , heterogeneity—within the MNC. Global efficiency, on the other hand, requires integration across business units. However, given the assumption of resource immobility, this integration is not always easy to achieve. Schuler et al. (1993) captured the e ssence of these tradeoffs by highlighting the relationships between internal operations and interunit linkages. From the standpoint of internal operations, each overseas affiliate must operate as effectively as possible relative to the competitive strategy of the MNC. This means that these affiliates can offer advantages to the MNC by recognizing and developing HR practices that are appropriate for their local markets, employment laws, cultural traditions, and the like. While internal operations at the local level are important, the MNC must also establish interunit linkages to gain efficiencies of scale and scope across several different countries. This suggests that while overseas affiliates can generate advantages locally, there are also substantial advantages that can be gained globally through integrated HR practices. Each is important, but each carries with it a different set of organizational requirements. These requirements point directly to issues relevant for HRM. Page 7 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Extending these ideas, Taylor, Beechler, and Napier (1996) describe how MNCs might develop a more integrative approach to HRM. The objective of this strategy is to share best practices from all parts of the firm (not just corporate) to create a worldwide system. While there are allowances for local differentiation, the focus is on substantial global integration. Differentiation provides both the potential for local response and customization, as well as the variety of ideas and practices needed for innovation at the global level. However, integration through coordination, communication, and learning is not always easily achieved in this context. Ironically, the very characteristics that provide resource-based advantage at the local level actually complicate integration at the global level. The ability of firms to gain efficiencies of scope and scale at a global level is made more difficult by resource heterogeneity, and this challenge is exacerbated by resource immobility. The challenge then for the transnational firm is to identify how firms can preserve variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a foundation for integration and efficiency. As mentioned by McWilliams et al. (2001) very few scholars have addressed the â€Å"stickiness† issue involved in balancing the global and local tension. Taylor et al. 1996) allude to such integration difficulties when they note: â€Å"The reason firms move toward an exportive rather than an integrative SIHRM orientation†¦is that the mechanism to identify and transfer the best HRM practices in their overseas affiliates are not in place. Such mechanisms as having regional or global meetings of affiliate HR directors, transferring HRM materials (e. g. , performance appraisal forms to affiliates) or posting of the HR director of the affiliates to the HQs of the firm were not developed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 972). These same capability issues are raised by McWilliams et al. 2001) when they discuss the major causes of internal stickiness being lack of absorptive capacity, causal ambiguity, and arduous relationships between the source and recipient. In both examples, barriers to global practice integration are raised and discussed, but not resolved. This issue is addressed more fully below. Page 8 International Human Resources IHM And Capabilities CAHRS WP05-16 Given the importance—and difficulty—of integrating human resources at a global level, while preserving the uniqueness and heterogeneity at the local level, it seems reasonable to discuss these issues in the context of competitive capabilities. Based on the knowledge based view (KBV) of firms, that emphasizes the need to acquire and integrate knowledge, we suggest two such capabilities (see Figure 1). First, knowledge integration capability refers to a firm’s ability to transfer and coordinate human resources across affiliates in a way that utilizes economies of scale and scope while allowing and promoting responsiveness to the local environment. Second, knowledge creation capability refers to a firms’ ability to create new and potentially innovative practices at the local level. Figure 1 IHRM: People, Practices, and Capabilities Focus Theories RBV: Focus on individual resources of knowledge, skills, and abilities RBV and Competencies: Focus on combined resources of HR practices Strategic Question Workforce: What are the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are heterogeneous and immobile? HR Practices and Systems: What are the HR practices and systems that are heterogeneous and immobile? Learning Capabilities: How can HR practices and systems be created and integrated to preserve heterogeneity and immobility? Sources McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 People Practices Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996 KBV and Organizational Capabilities: Capabilities Focus on learning processes and capabilities Chadwick & Cappelli, 1999 Knowledge Integration Capability Ironically, while learning capability is one of the key dimensions of the Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) framework of transnational organizations, most IHRM researchers have made only passing mention of how firms share and integrate best practice within the MNC. Snell, Youndt, and Wright (1996) argued that, particularly in dynamic environments, organizational learning may be the only way to ensure that resources sustain their value and uniqueness over Page 9 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 time. In essence, the capability to integrate HR practices better than competitors may be a key source of sustainable competitive advantage (cf. , Kogut & Zander, 1992). In the sections below, we frame the key factors underlying knowledge integration capability in terms of organizational capital, social capital, and human capital. Organizational Capital. Youndt, Subramaniam, and Snell (2004) define organizational capital as the institutionalized knowledge and codified experiences residing within an organization. Artifacts of organizational capital include an organization’s reliance on manuals and databases to preserve knowledge, along with the establishment of structures, processes, and routines that encourage repeated use of this knowledge (Hansen, Hohria, & Tierney, 1999). As an integration mechanism, organizational capital allows the firm to preserve knowledge as incoming employees replace those leaving. An example of such an artifact might be a â€Å"lessons learned† database to ensure that lessons learned by one group can be made accessible for all groups. Based on MNC research, in order to improve the integration of knowledge within an MNC relative to the speed of its diffusion or imitation by competitors, firms invest in ways to make knowledge explicit by encoding its use and replicating it in rules and documentation (Kogut & Zander, 1993). Other forms of organizational capital are likely to represent detailed, company-wide routines on how new HR practices should be integrated by all affiliates. These routines may detail how practices should be shared to reduce the variance and time it takes to implement each new approach, and thereby, improve the overall efficiency of knowledge integration (March, 1991). Similarly, organizations typically implement information systems to provide affiliates with a common platform for HR processes and practices (Snell, Stueber & Lepak, 2002). These systems, processes, and routines ensure that: (1) practices are implemented routinely through established data collection procedures and (2) practices are rapidly disseminated throughout the entire MNC with minimal costs (Daft & Weick, 1984). In terms of integration capability, then, organizational capital provides a basis for sharing and Page 10 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 institutionalizing knowledge across affiliates. However, it may work against efforts to preserve heterogeneity at the sub-unit level. Social Capital. Social capital—defined as the knowledge embedded within social networks—also plays a potentially valuable role in the integration capability of MNCs (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). For example, Szulanski (1995) found that one of the biggest obstacles to transfer knowledge in MNCs is the poor relationship between sources and recipients of information. Along this line, Ghoshal and Bartlett (1989) empirically showed that knowledge sharing and integration could not occur without the existence of strong social connections. The importance of social capital for integration capability is found in research by Kostova and Roth (2002), who concluded that successful practice adoption is largely dependent upon relationships based on trust and shared identity. Trust provides the motive to interact with others, while shared identity provides an overlapping understanding of what is important to share. Both of these elements of social capital would seem vital for integration capability. And importantly, neither of them would de facto require the loss of local autonomy. Human Capital. While organizational and social capital are both potentially important resources underlying a firm’s integration capability, Teece (1977) argued that one of the principle obstacles to transfer and integration is lack of prior experience and knowledge (i. e. , human capital). Research by Szulanski (1996) and Tsai (2002), for example, has shown that knowledge sharing and integration is facilitated when respective parties have the absorptive capacity or prior experience to understand related ideas (Szulansk, 1996; Tsai, 2002). In the context of MNCs, Haas (2004) showed that groups with large amounts of international experience are more likely to integrate knowledge from other parts of the organization than those that do not. Similarly, Gregersen and Black (1992) found that not only is international experience important for integration, but when it is coupled with experience in corporate headquarters affiliates are more likely to maintain allegiance to the overall goals of the firm. These international and corporate skills and knowledge are often gained through transfers and rotational assignments that enable the HR function to develop a more complex Page 11 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 and global orientation. This provides them with the ability to more systematically manage the integration process (Kedia & Bhagat, 1988). Such forms of human capital can also correct any tendency of HR subunits to assume that the situation in the host country is unique; thus avoiding the not-invented-here syndrome. The upshot of this discussion s is that a firm’s integration capability likely depends on a combination of human, social, and organizational capital. Social and organizational capital are alternative—and potentially complementary—resources for knowledge and practice sharing. Human capital, in turn, is important for absorbing or acquiring that knowledge. As firms develop the capability to integrate existing practices they potentially can achieve economies of scale and scope through HRM. And when these integrative mechanisms preserve resource heterogeneity at a local level, it may lead to a more rapid response to a global environment and greater potential for competitive advantage. Figure 2 Capabilities: Creative and Integrative Focus Market Assumption Value Proposition Sources Integrative Capabilities Stable Market: Resources must be combined and integrated to maintain an advantage Combining resources in ways that others cannot copy creates benefits arising from scarcity Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996; McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 Creative Capabilities Dynamic Market: Resources must be reconfigured and created to maintain an advantage Developing new resources that competitors don’t yet have creates benefits arising from innovation Chadwick & Cappelli, 1999; Snell, Youndt, and Wright; 1996 Page 12 International Human Resources Knowledge Creation Capability CAHRS WP05-16 In the context of organizational learning and the KBV, it is important to distinguish knowledge integration capability from knowledge creation capability. Just because a firm is able to integrate practices across affiliates does not mean that it will be able to create new practices as well (See Figure 2). Creation capabilities allow the MNC to develop new practices that lead to resource heterogeneity in the first place. While few HRM researchers have mentioned the importance of integration mechanisms, fewer still have discussed the importance of creation mechanisms that renew a firm’s stock of HR practices. This is despite the fact that as firms continually integrate practices, it is imperative that new practices are created and developed that allows for innovation and continuous improvement in a changing environment. Therefore, in global environments characterized by rapid change and increasing competition, static concepts of heterogeneity may no longer be sufficient to explain (and sustain) a competitive advantage. An ongoing debate in strategy is whether any static view of resources can really explain a competitive advantage that is sustainable over time (Lippman & Rumelt, 1982). For example, Grant (1996) argues that idiosyncratic advantages naturally erode over time. This debate is especially relevant in the global environment where what might create a competitive advantage at one point in time or in one location, may not at another point in time or location. Hence, it is vital that MNCs develop the capability to create and renew HR practices in order to maintain a competitive advantage. Ghoshal & Bartlett (1988) stated that MNCs â€Å"create† new products, practices, or systems locally, using specific mechanisms to respond to local circumstances. Creating local HR practices lies at the heart of an MNC’s capability to be responsive to the unique and changing opportunities of different environments. Below, we discuss how human capital, social capital, and organizational capital might influence the knowledge creation capability of new HR practices. (See Figure 3 for an overview of mechanisms that influence knowledge integration and creation capabilities). Page 13 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Figure 3 Capabilities: Human Capital, Social Capital, Organizational Capital Human Capital Social Capital Organizational Capital Creative Capability †¢In-depth local experience †¢International experience outside of corporate †¢Broad internal network range †¢Broad external network range †¢Local Market Relationships †¢Localized routines †¢Creative processes and systems †¢Norms of informality †¢Overarching principles or guidelines Increasing Influence on Creative Capability Integrative Capability Increasing Influence on Integrative Capability †¢Absorptive capacity †¢International and corporate experience †¢Internal Social connections †¢Shared perceptions and identity †¢Internal Trust †¢Company-wide rules and routines †¢Corporate culture of sharing †¢Interactive technologies †¢Data collection system Human Capital. The knowledge and experience—i. e. , human capital—of the people within the HR function is a key factor in new HR practice creation—whether of new practice ideas, or of improvements in the practices (Lepak & Snell, 1999). For example, HR functions possessing large amounts of local knowledge and experience should be able to effectively create practices on their own in response to the various, changing environments. This localized experience helps them to understand the needs of local clients and suppliers, which allows them to develop practices that are unique to each region or country, and hence, heterogeneous across the firm. Page 14 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 International experiences are also important for creating new HR practices. For example, because international experience is often highly valued in MNCs (e. g. , Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000), people with international skills and knowledge are more likely to be seen by others as being confident and willing to share divergent opinions and advocate for their own position (Stasser, Stewart, & Wittenbaum, 1995). Moreover, Gregersen & Black (1992) showed that people with strong experience in many international settings and limited experience in corporate are more likely to make changes based on local demands rather than pressures from central parts of the firm. This is most likely due to the people’s array of international experiences that have detached them from an allegiance with the company as a whole. Social Capital. Specific aspects of social capital have been argued to play a role in knowledge creation. For example, while Hansen (2002) argued that social networks provide an important conduit for the sharing of knowledge, he also argued that such networks play a role in knowledge creation because they inform network members about the existence, location, and significance of new knowledge. Burt (1982) found that networks comprising a broader range of contacts will have a more heterogeneous base of information and knowledge to draw from. While such wide networks may not always facilitate a deep flow of knowledge, they offer different reference points for HR members to make comparisons and explore new ideas. A firm’s ability to find new opportunities is likely to be a function of multiple local contacts. HR affiliates often have critical links with local vendors and, perhaps, competing HR groups that allow them to pursue local opportunities (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Hedlund, 1986). Birkinshaw (1997) refers to these as relationships within the ‘local market’. Within the local market an affiliate is likely to be embedded in different types of relationships (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990; Ghoshal & Nohria, 1989). McEvily and Zaheer (1999) argue that because each part of the MNC maintains different local patterns of network linkages, they are exposed to new knowledge, ideas, and opportunities. Organizational Capital. In many cases, organizational capital may actually hinder knowledge creation capability. The formalized processes, systems, structures, etc. ave a Page 15 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 tendency to reinforce existing routines and obviate against variation and change that engender creativity. However, in some instances, organizational capital may facilitate flexibility in the course of actions that allow a firm to attend to environmental cues. This is especially true when employees are encouraged to take action that supersede compan y-wide, standardized routines in favor of localized response that allows knowledge assimilation from the local environment (Daft & Weick, 1984). For example, parts of the firm may develop creative processes and systems to identify problems, develop hypotheses, communicate ideas to others, and contradict what would normally be expected (Torrence, 1988). Grant (1996) argued that such creative routines and processes offer an efficient framework for people to create new, situation-specific practices by utilizing local perspectives in developing practices for the firm. Though potentially problematic for the integrative capability, localized routines and creative processes help affiliates relate better with local vendors, clients, and competitors by providing a set of expectations and processes that encourage HR groups to turn to the surrounding environment. For example, an HR affiliate may have developed a simple manual or informal norm of what to do when developing a new practice. Such a routine is likely to leave many gaps in exact steps to follow, but provide an overview or value to help the HR group be innovative. This simple routine allows the local HR group to assimilate knowledge more quickly from its employees and develop practices to meet their needs. In summary, these aspects of human capital, social capital, and organizational capital help us identify how the knowledge integration and creation capabilities might occur within an MNC. Some of these forms of capital are more useful depending upon the capability it is supporting, and ironically, some of these mechanisms that influence integration might actually hinder knowledge creation and vice versa. For example, firms heavy in local knowledge and experiences and weak in international experiences might have a negative affect on a firm’s ability to integrate practices across the various parts of the firm. Such strong human capital is likely to promote the not-invented-here syndrome through the affiliate’s strong belief and experience base dealing exclusively with the local environment. Similarly, rigid forms of Page 16 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organizational capital, in terms of standardized routines and shared electronic databases, might deter the various parts of HR to develop and create practices on their own. This could largely stem from the fact that so much structure and support for integration is in place that HR groups fail to find time to bring about new practices or adapt existing practices to the local environment. Implications For Research And Theory The unique complexities and challenges faced by today’s global firms present different implications for the RBV and its application to strategic IHRM. For example, because a large amount of the international management literature focuses on variances in cultural, geographical, and institutional pressures; the implications for applying the RBV become more complex. As MNCs struggle to create and integrate their practices across borders, they are faced with unique challenges that either push for global efficiency or local responsiveness. These challenges open the discussion for ways to actually manage both the creation and integration of knowledge on a global scale. This means that the questions typically asked by strategic IHRM scholars (e. g. , HR practices and performance) should be augmented with questions of how HR practices are created and integrated in ways that lead toward resource heterogeneity and immobility. To create a sustainable competitive advantage firms must not only be able to respond to their local environments or standardize their practices across the firm. They must be able to balance a tension of practice heterogeneity through local practice creation and immobility of those practices through their integration across the firm. One theoretical implication of this discussion calls for a greater understanding of the rents found through the creation and integration of HR practices. As Chadwick and Dabu (2004) explain, a marriage of rent concepts with theories of the firm (i. e. RBV) is essential to describing firm’s competitive advantages and particularly in understanding how actors within firms can take conscious steps to toward a sustainable competitive advantage. The current strategic IHRM literature strongly alludes to the importance of integration and being able to Page 17 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organize heterogeneous resources in a way that is diff icult for competitors to imitate. The assumption here is that heterogeneity and immobility of resources creates greater performance or rents arising from scarcity—Ricardian rents (cf. , Carpenter, Sanders, Gregersen, 2001). In essence, Ricardian rents can be rooted in the cross-border integration of various HR practices. The integration of such practices not only assures that some of them will be unique to the firm, but that they will be difficult for others to imitate—making them scarce in the market. The advantages that come from constant creation of HR practices operates under a different principle than traditional resources leading to Ricardian rents. Rather than rents arising from scarcity, the creation capability perspective emphasizes rents arising from market discontinuities—Schumpeterian rents (cf. Carpenter et al. , 2001). Schumpeterian rents derive from a firm’s ability to exploit or leverage resources to address changing environments (Teece et al. , 1997; Amit & Schoemaker, 1993). Based on Schumpeterian rents, a focus on the continuous creation of resources can enable a firm to achieve competitive advantage on a sustainable basis by developing new practices that lead to practice heterogeneity across a complex and ambiguous global network. Hence, as mentioned by Lado and Wilson (1994) and Teece et al. 1997), turning to these dynamic capabilities as an extended approach to the RBV offers a closer understanding of the actual sources of competitive advantage in a changing global environment. While we discuss the main mechanisms driving knowledge creation and integration (Grant, 1996), aspects of integration tend to focus on a broad array of learning processes, including knowledge sharing, transfer, codification, adoption, and/or institutionalization. Further research should look at how different aspects of the integration process might be influenced by specific human, social, and organizational capital mechanisms. For example, Hansen and Haas (2001) showed that many firms have little difficulty in sharing knowledge across various units of the firm, but that the actual application or institutionalization of this knowledge is a completely different matter. While other scholars such as Kogut and Zander (1992) and Schulz (2001) have theoretically separated integration to include transfer and integration (or combination), very Page 18 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 little practical research has been done on what factors might influence the transfer and what factors might influence the integration of knowledge. Clearly, there must be differences since research such as Hansen and Haas’ (2001) notice the disparity in knowledge that is shared and knowledge that is actually applied. Also, while the ideas presented in this chapter are rooted in theory, empirical research is needed to determine the impact of human, social,, and organizational capital on knowledge creation and integration capabilities. While theory suggests that aspects of all three of these factors will influence both capabilities, it is most probable that aspects of human capital will more strongly influence the creative capability. This is largely due to the fact that people and their knowledge and skills are what allows the different HR affiliates the ability to develop local practices on their own, without interference or supervision from regional or corporate headquarters. Similarly, social and organizational capital should have their strongest influences on the integrative capability. This is due, in part, to the conduits and repositories created from aspects of social capital and organizational capital, respectively. In fact, as we mentioned earlier, some aspects of organizational capital might have a negative effect on the firm’s ability to create new practices (knowledge), while some aspects of human capital may have a negative effect on the firm’s ability to integrate those practices across affiliates. Conclusion The purpose of this chapter has been to summarize the literature on RBV and IHRM in multinational firms by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and immobility provide potential advantages to MNCs. However, we have also attempted to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges of—and capabilities needed to— integrate resources across business units within the MNC. The solution frequently used by firms has been to standardize HR practices and policies at a global level, but this solves the integration problem while destroying the advantages of local Page 19 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 variety. The challenge as we see it is identifying how firms can preserve variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a foundation for integration and efficiency. The ability for HR managers to balance this tension lies in the development of capabilities to create and integrate practices across the global HR function. We extended traditional views of RBV to include aspects of practice integration and creation. Such capabilities allow firms to constantly renew their HR practices in a way that allows them to respond to multiple external pressures while being coordinated and integrated to ensure that these practices drive the firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. Page 20 International Human Resources References CAHRS WP05-16 Amit, R. , & Schoemaker, P. J. H. 993. Strategic assets and organizational rent. Strategic Management Journal, 14: 33-46. Bae, J. , & Lawler, J. J. 2000. Organizational and HRM strategies in Korea: Impact on firm performance in an emerging economy. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 502-517. Barney, J. B. 1991. Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17: 99-120. Barney, J. 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Good and Evil (a Wrinkle in Time, and Frankenstein Review) Essay Example for Free

Good and Evil (a Wrinkle in Time, and Frankenstein Review) Essay â€Å"Life is neither good or evil, but only a place for good and evil. † Marcus Aurelius. A Wrinkle in Time is a book about the journey through the war of good versus evil and the ultimate triumph of love. Every character is clearly distinguished with either good or evil: the â€Å"good† characters include Meg, her family, Calvin, the Mrs. W’s, Aunt Beast, and the Happy Medium; the â€Å"evil† characters include IT, The Dark Thing, and the Man with the Red Eyes. Frankenstein, on the other hand, is a story told in a series of letters, as Robert Walton, the captain of a ship bound for the North Pole, recounts to his sister back in England the progress of his dangerous mission. Successful early on, the mission is soon to be disturbed by seas full of impassable ice. Trapped, Walton encounters Victor Frankenstein, who had been travelling by dog-drawn sledge across the ice and is weakened by the cold. Walton take him abroad the ship, helps nurse him back to health, and hears the fantastic tale of the monster the Frankenstein created. This tale that Frankenstein is reciting reveals the two sides that a person, or a living creature can portray: good and evil. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent†, while A Wrinkle in Time was banned for having a fantasy-related genre throughout the plot, including witches and demons. Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. â€Å"Slave, I before reasoned with you, but you have proved yourself unworthy of my condescension. Remember that I have power; you believe yourself miserable, but I can make you so wretched that the light of day will be hateful to you. You are my creator, but I am your master; obey! † (Shelley 149). In Frankenstein, the monster represents evil, as it comes to life, and terrorizes its creator. Dangerous knowledge is an ideal theme in Frankenstein. The pursuit of knowledge is right in the middle of Frankenstein, as Victor attempts to go beyond accepted human limits and find out the secret of life. Likewise, Robert Walton attempts to pass the past human explorations by being determined to reach the North Pole. In A Wrinkle In Time, comfort and individuality is a major theme that I saw throughout the plot. The main character, Meg, is caught between the desire for conformity and the expression of her own creative nature. At the beginning of the novel Meg feels embittered towards other students at her school that make fun of her and tease her for being different, as well as those who see her little brother as being weird or odd. She desperately wants to be more like her twin brothers who have little problem fitting in. The theme that the two stories share, and that I have mentioned before, is the theme titled good and evil: â€Å"Suddenly there was a great burst of light through the Darkness. The light spread out and where it touched the Darkness the Darkness disappeared. The light spread until the patch of Dark Thing had vanished, and there was only a gentle shining, and through the shining came the stars, clear and pure. Then, slowly, the shining dwindled until it, too, was gone, and there was nothing but stars and starlight. No shadows. No fear. Only the stars and the clear darkness of space, quite different from the fearful darkness of the Thing† (L’Engle 102). Its interesting that the defeat of the Black Thing doesnt lead to the universe being lit up like a baseball stadium, but rather to an absence of unnatural darkness. Its almost like the battle isnt so much between evil and good as between evil and the normal. Characters are â€Å"Plot is no more than footprints left in the snow after your characters have run by on their way to incredible destinations† Ray Bradbury. In Frankenstein, the main character or the creator of the monster. Victor becomes obsessed with the idea of creating an artificial human form and eventually attempts to make it. Immediately after creating the monster, he falls into a depression and starts to fear. He leaves the school and returns home to his family, where he finds only tragedy. Not fully aware of the consequences of his creating a new human, he ends up really spending his entire life trying to destroy the same creation he was working to make for so long. In a Wrinkle In Time however, the protagonist is portrayed a bit differently: Meg Murry, The books hero, an awkward, but loving high school student who is sent on an adventure through time and space with her brother Charles Wallace and friend Calvin to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to take over the universe. Megs greatest faults are her anger, impatience, and lack of self-confidence, but she changes and overcomes them, and in the end is victorious, as the story ends with a stereotypical kid’s-story ending. A happy ending for the protagonist. The main differences that I saw between the two are the two protagonists: Meg Murry (A Wrinkle In Time), and Victor Frankenstein (Frankenstein), are to begin with, set in different times. A Wrinkle In Time could be set anywhere in the recent past. Frankenstein however, is set in the late 18th century. The whole concept of Frankenstein is much darker, and in fact I would say it could be classified as gothic science fiction, as the characters are much darker, and seem more serious and cold-hearted by the way Shelley describes them compared to the other book. A Wrinkle In Time is much lighter, as the characters, their actions, and abilities are all easier, and always give the advantage to the â€Å"good guys†. Also the whole concept of the book, and the idea of it, is more for a child’s imagination to handle and comprehend compared to Frankenstein, and I would classify it as plain science and fantasy fiction. Although these differences shape the stories in totally different directions, there are some similarities: The similarities between the characters and their traits are that they both have solid downsides to them. As I mentioned before, Meg’s (A Wrinkle In Time) faults are her temper, impatience, and lack of confidence in herself, and Victor’s (Frankenstein) faults are that he is in a depression and great fear throughout the plot after the Monster is created and is woken. Another trait I can compare between the two protagonists, are their determination to reach their final goal. Although I cannot see it in either book, but both books were officially banned in one place or another for ridiculous reasons. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent† in 1955. Maybe 57 years ago there were different rules and traits a person had to portray to be defined as â€Å"good†, but to make this specific book banned for being â€Å"obscene† (which means that it is offensive or the opposite of accepted manner). A Wrinkle In Time is banned for having witches, crystal balls and demons. Also, because Jesus is listed among the names of great artists, philosophers and teachers, and it is banned in the U. S. â€Å"Thus strangely are our souls constructed, and by such slight ligaments are we bound to prosperity or ruin† (Shelley 37). All in all, these books have more differences than similarities in my opinion. Although both are really good, one is dark while the other is light compared. The similarities that I saw in the characters, the themes, and the reason they were censored are mostly because of the relationship between good and evil throughout it. Studying these two books and the reason for them being banned has surprisingly changed my life in a minor way, as I learned how people from different cultures and education they grew up with react to different things, and I learned to compare and contrast, not only the books, but real life situations such as the South Africans who banned Frankenstein versus my lifestyle and way-of-thinking. â€Å"Life is neither good or evil, but only a place for good and evil. † Marcus Aurelius. A Wrinkle in Time is a book about the journey through the war of good versus evil and the ultimate triumph of love. Every character is clearly distinguished with either good or evil: the â€Å"good† characters include Meg, her family, Calvin, the Mrs. W’s, Aunt Beast, and the Happy Medium; the â€Å"evil† characters include IT, The Dark Thing, and the Man with the Red Eyes. Frankenstein, on the other hand, is a story told in a series of letters, as Robert Walton, the captain of a ship bound for the North Pole, recounts to his sister back in England the progress of his dangerous mission. Successful early on, the mission is soon to be disturbed by seas full of impassable ice. Trapped, Walton encounters Victor Frankenstein, who had been travelling by dog-drawn sledge across the ice and is weakened by the cold. Walton take him abroad the ship, helps nurse him back to health, and hears the fantastic tale of the monster the Frankenstein created. This tale that Frankenstein is reciting reveals the two sides that a person, or a living creature can portray: good and evil. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent†, while A Wrinkle in Time was banned for having a fantasy-related genre throughout the plot, including witches and demons. Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. â€Å"Slave, I before reasoned with you, but you have proved yourself unworthy of my condescension. Remember that I have power; you believe yourself miserable, but I can make you so wretched that the light of day will be hateful to you. You are my creator, but I am your master; obey! † (Shelley 149). In Frankenstein, the monster represents evil, as it comes to life, and terrorizes its creator. Dangerous knowledge is an ideal theme in Frankenstein. The pursuit of knowledge is right in the middle of Frankenstein, as Victor attempts to go beyond accepted human limits and find out the secret of life. Likewise, Robert Walton attempts to pass the past human explorations by being determined to reach the North Pole. In A Wrinkle In Time, comfort and individuality is a major theme that I saw throughout the plot. The main character, Meg, is caught between the desire for conformity and the expression of her own creative nature. At the beginning of the novel Meg feels embittered towards other students at her school that make fun of her and tease her for being different, as well as those who see her little brother as being weird or odd. She desperately wants to be more like her twin brothers who have little problem fitting in. The theme that the two stories share, and that I have mentioned before, is the theme titled good and evil: â€Å"Suddenly there was a great burst of light through the Darkness. The light spread out and where it touched the Darkness the Darkness disappeared. The light spread until the patch of Dark Thing had vanished, and there was only a gentle shining, and through the shining came the stars, clear and pure. Then, slowly, the shining dwindled until it, too, was gone, and there was nothing but stars and starlight. No shadows. No fear. Only the stars and the clear darkness of space, quite different from the fearful darkness of the Thing† (L’Engle 102). Its interesting that the defeat of the Black Thing doesnt lead to the universe being lit up like a baseball stadium, but rather to an absence of unnatural darkness. Its almost like the battle isnt so much between evil and good as between evil and the normal. Characters are â€Å"Plot is no more than footprints left in the snow after your characters have run by on their way to incredible destinations† Ray Bradbury. In Frankenstein, the main character or the creator of the monster. Victor becomes obsessed with the idea of creating an artificial human form and eventually attempts to make it. Immediately after creating the monster, he falls into a depression and starts to fear. He leaves the school and returns home to his family, where he finds only tragedy. Not fully aware of the consequences of his creating a new human, he ends up really spending his entire life trying to destroy the same creation he was working to make for so long. In a Wrinkle In Time however, the protagonist is portrayed a bit differently: Meg Murry, The books hero, an awkward, but loving high school student who is sent on an adventure through time and space with her brother Charles Wallace and friend Calvin to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to take over the universe. Megs greatest faults are her anger, impatience, and lack of self-confidence, but she changes and overcomes them, and in the end is victorious, as the story ends with a stereotypical kid’s-story ending. A happy ending for the protagonist. The main differences that I saw between the two are the two protagonists: Meg Murry (A Wrinkle In Time), and Victor Frankenstein (Frankenstein), are to begin with, set in different times. A Wrinkle In Time could be set anywhere in the recent past. Frankenstein however, is set in the late 18th century. The whole concept of Frankenstein is much darker, and in fact I would say it could be classified as gothic science fiction, as the characters are much darker, and seem more serious and cold-hearted by the way Shelley describes them compared to the other book. A Wrinkle In Time is much lighter, as the characters, their actions, and abilities are all easier, and always give the advantage to the â€Å"good guys†. Also the whole concept of the book, and the idea of it, is more for a child’s imagination to handle and comprehend compared to Frankenstein, and I would classify it as plain science and fantasy fiction. Although these differences shape the stories in totally different directions, there are some similarities: The similarities between the characters and their traits are that they both have solid downsides to them. As I mentioned before, Meg’s (A Wrinkle In Time) faults are her temper, impatience, and lack of confidence in herself, and Victor’s (Frankenstein) faults are that he is in a depression and great fear throughout the plot after the Monster is created and is woken. Another trait I can compare between the two protagonists, are their determination to reach their final goal. Although I cannot see it in either book, but both books were officially banned in one place or another for ridiculous reasons. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent† in 1955. Maybe 57 years ago there were different rules and traits a person had to portray to be defined as â€Å"good†, but to make this specific book banned for being â€Å"obscene† (which means that it is offensive or the opposite of accepted manner). A Wrinkle In Time is banned for having witches, crystal balls and demons. Also, because Jesus is listed among the names of great artists, philosophers and teachers, and it is banned in the U. S. â€Å"Thus strangely are our souls constructed, and by such slight ligaments are we bound to prosperity or ruin† (Shelley 37). All in all, these books have more differences than similarities in my opinion. Although both are really good, one is dark while the other is light compared. The similarities that I saw in the characters, the themes, and the reason they were censored are mostly because of the relationship between good and evil throughout it. Studying these two books and the reason for them being banned has surprisingly changed my life in a minor way, as I learned how people from different cultures and education they grew up with react to different things, and I learned to compare and contrast, not only the books, but real life situations such as the South Africans who banned Frankenstein versus my lifestyle and way-of-thinking.

Industrialisation and Identity Essay Example for Free

Industrialisation and Identity Essay In 1889 Chicago had the peculiar qualifications of growth which made such adventuresome pilgrimages even on the part of young girls plausible. Its many and growing commercial opportunities gave it widespread fame, which made of it a giant magnet, drawing to itself, from all quarters, the hopeful and the hopeless those who had their fortune yet to make and those whose fortunes and affairs had reached a disastrous climax elsewhere. (Dreiser 15f) At the turn of the 19th century, the industrialisation brought about tremendous change in the US. With innovations and inventions like the steam engine, railroads, electricity, telephones and telegraphing, the structure of American society shifted and evolved. People from the rural areas started flocking to the big cities in hopes of finding work and a better life, a dream many chased in vain. The protagonist in Theodore Dreiser’s novel Sister Carrie, 18-year old country girl Carrie Meeber, is one of the â€Å"hopeful†; she leaves her hometown to find happiness and success in the big city of Chicago. At first, she stays with relatives and experiences the miserable, tiresome day-to-day struggle of the working middle-class of job-hunting and then hard menial labour in a factory. However, she soon grows tired of her situation. She lets herself be mesmerised by the wealth displayed by others, which both intimidates her and fills her with an insatiable longing for money and status. With this desire growing in her heart, she is willing to make all the sacrifices to achieve her goal, leaving her safe, but unexciting home to live with Charles Drouet, a man whom she barely knows, but who offers her a comfortable lifestyle. Nevertheless, Carrie still is not satisfied, so she leaves him for the wealthier George Hurstwood and continues to search for a way to success and happiness by obtaining status and commodities, losing herself in the process. In his novel Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser illustrates how the industrialisation did not only change the structure of American society at the turn of the 19th century, but also have a deep impact on the consumer culture and individual consumer behaviour of the American middle-class, marking the beginning of the impossible quest of struggling to create one’s identity through consumption. The Industrialisation The inventions and innovations of the industrialisation brought about great change for American society and people’s everyday lives. Roughly before 1750, even though the Americans with their steadily advancing frontier were a very progress-oriented people, the general expectation was to die in a world not much different to the one one was born in. (Cross 53) However, during and after the industrialisation, the increased development of ground-breaking new technology did not only affect the economy, but also the way people viewed the world. The inventions of the steam engine and electricity, the new ways of travelling and communication over long distances and new forms of retail created new employment and consumption possibilities (Cross 53), allowing a more and more comfortable and luxurious lifestyle in the cities for the upper-class and those middle-class citizens who were able to afford to keep up with the latest trends and fashions. The steam engine is said to be the central invention of the industrialisation period from the 18th to the 20th century, as it inspired as many technological advances as no other invention before it. Invented in Britain at the beginning of the 18th century, Gary Cross explains it took quite some time until was imported, adapted and improved by the Americans to fit their needs. In the 18th century, he reasons, there was no need for an alternative source of energy, as vast forests, coal deposits and water energy were available. In the 19th century, however, this indifferent attitude towards the steam engine changed fundamentally and its potential as an energy source for manufacturing was exploited. Cross 84) By 1830, only about five per cent of the American factories used steam power; by 1900, it was over 80 per cent. (Cross 93) Steam also found its uses in the non-industrial sector as central heating for buildings. In Sister Carrie, Carrie delights in her modern New York apartment â€Å"supplied with steam-heat† and a â€Å"bath with hot and cold water† (307). In addition to that, the steam engine was applied in the area of transportation as energy source for street cars, steam boats, and locomotives. The railroad had a tremendous effect on both the American economy and society in the 19th century. Daniel W. Howe mentions three main consequences of the railroad (among many others): Firstly, it sped up the process of urbanisation by connecting rural areas to the big cities. (Howe 565) For example, Chicago, one of the main settings of Sister Carrie, evolved from a village of less than 100 inhabitants in 1830 to a city of 30,000 in 1850, which would have been absolutely â€Å"inconceivable [†¦] without the railroad. (Howe 567) In 1889, the time the story of the novel sets in, its population is greater than 50,000 (16). Secondly, allowing the efficient transport of commodities across the country by shortening waiting times and cutting costs, the railroad not only led to a tremendous change in trading business, but also provided the incentive for technological advancement in steel production as well as in the efficiency and safety of trains and tracks, laying the groundwork for f urther innovation of methods of transport later in history. Howe 566) Finally, as a comparatively convenient and affordable way of travelling, railroads also provided the opportunity for long-distance trips and vacations in far-away places even for the American middle-class. (Howe 565) There are two reasons for taking the train in Sister Carrie: for business purposes, and with the intent of moving to another city. Interestingly, there are no actual vacations taking place in the novel; merely plans of travel are mentioned, mostly overseas trips to Europe (142;357). Of far more interest are Drouet and his ambivalent feelings about business travel. He undoubtedly enjoys meeting and flirting with the ladies he meets on the road. He has no reservations of striking up a chat with Carrie on her first train journey from her hometown to Chicago, who (unsurprisingly) is very impressed by Drouet and his knowledge of the various places he has visited on business. (4ff) Drouet is a â€Å"drummer†, a travelling salesman, a job requiring the railway for fast long-distance travel. For him, train journeys hold no deep meaning; they are simply a necessary part of his work. In a short flirtation with a chambermaid, he reveals that he travels far, but does not care for travelling all that much, explaining, â€Å"You get tired of it after awhile. † (200) The same trip, merely a boring return of a business trip for Drouet, is a life-altering, exciting journey for Carrie. Never having travelled before, she is reassured by the thought that home will never be far away since the cities were â€Å"bound more closely by these very trains which came up daily† (3). The railroad shortened travel times drastically. While it took five weeks to travel from Chicago over the Appalachians to New York in 1790, seventy years later the distance could be crossed in merely two days. (Cross 104) Originally, Carrie moves from the countryside to the city because she is in need of work; however, her expectations for her future are far more ambitious. Her hopes of fortune and fame she projects on â€Å"[t]his onrushing train†, which â€Å"was merely speeding to get there. † (3) The second and by far most dramatic journey in Sister Carrie, however, is the elopement of Carrie and Hurstwood. Having stolen a large sum of money from his employers, he tricks Carrie into leaving Chicago with him on a train bound for Detroit, from where they continue to Montreal, Canada. Again, all hope is set on the train as the (only) way to a better future. In this case it is Hurstwood, who in his desperation loses all eloquence, who considers the only possible future as â€Å"a thing which concern[s] the Canadian line. † (275) Making the train his lifeline, he hopes to cross the border as soon as possible, since abroad he will be safe from the legal repercussions of his crime. Hurstwood manages to persuade Carrie to stay with him, but since life in Montreal does not seem worthwhile to either of them, they soon decide to move on to New York, again with the hope of a promising future awaiting them once they get off the train. The invention of the telegraph revolutionised long-distance communication thoroughly, possibly even more so than the railroad did long-distance transportation. Professor Samuel Finley Breese Morse and his team were the first to develop a commercially viable kind of electric telegraph in America; by 1848, the system of wires reached Chicago. Howe 695) Research and experiments led to Thomas Edison finding a way of sending messages back and forth over one wire at the same time in the 1870s and to his invention of the phonograph, with which messages could be recorded. (Cross 176) Unlike the telephone, which was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 and was mainly used for social purposes (Cross 181), the telegraph was mostly used for commercial purposes and information transmission. It also found its use in communication on the railroad, improving the safety and efficiency of trains. Cross 102) In Sister Carrie, the telegraph and even the telephone have short appearances at crucial points in the story, both concerning Hurstwood’s crime and dramatic escape. Coming across a â€Å"famous drug store† with â€Å"one of the first private telephone booths ever erected† (271), Hurstwood phones the train station to obtain information regarding the train times, as he wishes to leave as soon as possible. Opposed to the novelty of the telephone so explicitly stressed by Dreiser, the already well-established telegraph is casually integrated in the story. On the train bound for Detroit, Hurstwood worries that the afternoon papers might already cover his theft and wonders â€Å"what telegraphs might come† (282), indicating his fear of not being able to escape fast enough. The telegraph was a useful tool for the police to coordinate searches and catching criminals before they were beyond reach, apparently leading to a few successful arrests. (288) Once in Canada, Hurstwood anxiously checks the newspaper, and, â€Å"among the riff-raff of the telegraphed murders, accidents, marriages and other news items from out the length and breadth of the land† (297), he discovers a small notice of his own crime. Because he cannot see himself staying abroad, he tries to negotiate with his former employers the return of the money and a possible rehiring, the latter of which obviously eliciting a much colder response than the first–also via telegraph. (302) Electricity was one huge step towards a modern economy and society. At first mainly used to replace gas lighting, its uses expanded rapidly with every new innovation and improvement of existing technology; as mentioned, the telegraph and telephone depended on electric energy, and the electronic signal for the railway introduced in 1872 greatly improved the safety of trains. Cross 102) However, in the first years, electricity was mainly used to making America a brighter place–in the literal sense. (Cross 157) Brighter and cleaner than gas lighting, the electric light bulb invented by Thomas Edison in 1879 gradually took over homes, offices, and city streets. (Cross 158) In the late 1880s, steam-powered street cars in many cities were replaced by electric ones, as they were a faster alternative to get the workers from their homes to their work places and back. They were also less expensive, and the inevitable pollution was concentrated in the area the energy was generated and not spread throughout the city; electric streetcars did, however, increase noise pollution. (Cross 159; 168) Light is the element creating the most obvious distinction between places of luxury and places of suffering in Sister Carrie: The former are all bathed in light, while the latter are cast in shadow or are dimly lit at best. For example, the shoe factory Carrie works in in the beginning is xtremely poorly lit (36f), while the department stores as temples of consumption and the streets as their runways are practically aglow (30). As their financial situation in New York becomes irreversibly dire, Hurstwood one day finds Carrie â€Å"reading, quite alone. It was rather dark in the flat, shut in as it was. † (358) Bright lights, on the other hand, are abundant in places Carrie enjoys being; she quite literally experiences the â€Å"bright side of life† when she dines out with friends at Sherry’s, a very popular and expensive restaurant the high society of New York likes to dine at. She marvels at the splendid dining chamber, all decorated and aglow, where the wealthy ate, [with its] incandescent lights, the reflection of their glow in polished glasses, and the shine of gilt upon the walls [†¦]. On the ceilings were colored traceries with more gilt, leading to a centre where spread a broad circle of light–incandescent globes mingled with glittering prisms and stucco tendrils of gilt.

History of Volleyball

History of Volleyball Dan Gould Mr. Woodmansee William G. Morgan’s â€Å"Mintonette† and it’s evolution to the popular international sport, has changed in many different ways to become the more modern day sport called, â€Å"Volleyball†. Volleyball was founded in 1895, by a man named, William G. Morgan, in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It was originally called â€Å"Mintonette†, and was meant to be a combination of Basketball, Baseball, and Handball. Also, it was designed to be a non-contact sport so that no one got hurt. There was no limit to the number of players on a team, nor was there a limit to the number of contacts on each side. The first official volleyball match was played on July 7th, 1896 at Springfield College, MA. People loved the sport, so right away it was spread across the country, and was played in most YMCA’s. The first dimensions of volleyball were very simple. The initial rules by William G. Morgan required a net which was six feet and six inches high (which was the size of an average person back then). The court, also made up by William G. Morgan, was 25 feet by 50 feet in size. Another rule was that you could have as many players as you wanted on each side. The official weight of the volleyball was no less than nine ounces, but no more than twelve ounces (it was made out of the bladder from a Basketball). Over time, most of these dimensions were changed to make the more appropriate sport called, â€Å"Volleyball†. There were several original playing rules designed for volleyball. One of the first rules was that the game consisted of nine innings. Depending on the number of players on each team,  the team would have one serve per player. After each team members serve was over, the inning would be over. The player serving continued to serve until he missed the serve or his team failed to return the ball to the other side of the net. You could only score when your team had the serve. Another rule was, if the ball hit the net, it was called a net ball, and counted as a point for the opposing team. If the ball was served into the net, it would be called a dead ball, and would count as a trial. The next rule was if a player touched the net, it would be called a net, and would result in a point for the other team. If you caught or held the ball for a couple of seconds, it would be called a carry, and would also result in a point for the other team. In 1896, (a year after the founding of Mintonette) a man by the name of Dr. Alfred T. Halstead approached William G. Morgan at the first exhibition game. He told him that a better, or a more appropriate name for the sport should be â€Å"Volley Ball†. William liked the idea, and the name stuck. In 1952, the name was officially changed, by combining the words â€Å"Volley†, and â€Å"Ball†, and making its new name, â€Å"Volleyball†. To this day the sport still has the same name. Over the years, volleyball has changed tremendously. As you know, nothing stays the same anymore. Well anyways, the court size was changed to 60 feet by 30 feet. The net was also changed too, but this time, there was a size for a women’s net and a men’s net. The women’s net was seven feet and four inches, while the men’s net was seven feet and eleven inches. Also, the rule about having as many players on the court was changed to; six players per side (no more or no less). The ball’s official size stayed with the same criteria, but mainly, it was about ten ounces. These dimensions will stay the same for a while, but some may be tweaked up a bit as the years go by. As I said, â€Å"nothing can be perfect; there is always room for a change†. Just as they did for the dimensions, they also revised some playing rules. They got rid of the nine innings, and instead, they changed it to; three out of five, games to fifteen. Also, you could still only score on your serve, but you had as many serves as you wanted. Another rule was that you could no longer hit the ball as many times as you wanted. Instead, you only could have three contacts per side, and a player could only contact the ball once, or it would result in a violation called the â€Å"two hits violation†. The last rule added was the under the net rule; if a player stepped over the line in the middle, (dividing the two teams) then it would result as a violation, and a point would be awarded to the opposing team. As volleyball began to spread around the world, there was a strong love for the sport, and some people wanted to bring the sport to the beach. Beach volleyball was founded in the 1920’s in Santa Monica, CA. It was at first played as just a recreational sport, where people could play for fun. It was played only with two people on the court, and the rules were slightly different than indoor volleyball. It became a competitive sport in California in 1947. In the sport you had to communicate and move very swiftly in order to do well. It was a great activity to play at the beach, and many people thought it was one of the coolest sports ever to be invented. Still it was practically the same sport as indoor volleyball; the only difference was that it was played on sand, and not on solid ground. Now for the dimensions of Beach Volleyball (which are completely different than indoor volleyball). The court is approximately 26 ¼ feet by 52 ½ feet long. The net on the other hand, is the same criteria as indoor volleyball, except both men and women’s nets are lowered by an inch, due to the uneven sand. Which means a women’s net would be seven feet and three inches, and the men’s would be seven feet and ten inches high. Also, the outdoor volleyball is about an inch wider than an indoor ball, but it is lighter by about two ounces (which makes it easier for the ball to come up by the players). One completely different dimension from indoor volleyball is; (not counting the court), there needs to be at least three and one fourth feet for playing space. In beach volleyball the games were still the same as indoor; Three out of five, and games to fifteen. Also in beach, you could still only score when your team had the serve, which was called â€Å"side out volleyball†. Another rule was that you could not set the ball over the net, unless if you were square to where the ball was going to land. As for the under the net call, in beach, it was only called if you went under the net and interfered with another player (in other words, you got in the players way). Some of these rules, just like indoor, still will be changing to this day. In 1942, volleyball was introduced into the Olympics, but only as an exhibition sport. It immediately was loved by all the fans, and many different countries started to develop their own teams. Finally, in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games, volleyball became an official sport in the Olympics. It was sponsored strongly by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Beach volleyball would later on join the Olympics as well. Soon, beach volleyball took on a life of its own. In 1992, it was introduced into the Olympics as an exhibition sport. Also, just like indoor volleyball, the fans loved it, and many other countries developed teams as well too. Right away, in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, beach volleyball became an official Olympic sport. Also, to this day, beach volleyball is thought to be the hottest ticket in the Olympics. Over the years, there have been many volleyball/beach volleyball leagues. Most of them have recently started over this century. Some examples are; AVP, FIVBA, USVBA, Junior Olympics, and AAU. These leagues are mostly for professionals. Like AVP, which is basically the NBA for basketball players, but instead for beach volleyball players. Also, the USVBA stands for United States Volleyball Association, which is basically our U.S. Olympic indoor volleyball team. Over the years so many of the rules have changed, and actually, today, they are still being changed. One major change was the introduction of the libero. It was introduced in 1998. A libero is a player that wears a different color shirt than the rest of the team, and they are basically defensive specialists. At any time during the game, if anyone needed to be taken out of the back row, they could be switched with the libero, but it would not count as a substitution. The only twist was that the libero was not allowed to play in the front row. One other rule that was switched was the side out rule, the rule was changed so that you don’t have to win the point on your serve, but you could also get a point on the opposing teams serve. Lastly, the games were changed to three out of five, games to twenty-five. In beach volleyball, the games were also three out of five, but the games were to twenty-one. In worldwide popularity, volleyball is the second most popular sport in the world, the first being soccer. With about 46 million Americans that play, and over 800 million people that play around the world, it is obvious that volleyball touches lives. Volleyball has definitely grown to be the best team sport there will ever be. The reason for this is because there cannot just be one star player on the team but, there has to be at least three contacts from at least two different players. References Crisfield, Deborah, and John J. Monteleone. Winning Volleyball for Girls. New York: Chelsea House, 2010. Print. Dearing, Joel B. The Untold Story of William G. Morgan Inventor of Volleyball. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. February 9th: William G. Morgan Invents a Game Called Mintonette That Is Better Known Today as Volleyball. Today I Found Out RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . Ghare, Madhavi. Volleyball: History, Court and Equipment. Buzzle.com. Buzzle.com, 17 Dec. 2007. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . History Behind Volleyball Discovering Volleyball in 1950-80. History Behind Volleyball. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . Kenny, Bonnie, and Cindy Gregory. Volleyball: Steps to Success. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006. Print Volleyball History 101. About.com Volleyball. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Nov. 2013. . Volleyball Rules 1897. Volleyball Rules 1897. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. . VOLLEYBALL COURT DIMENSIONS. VOLLEYBALL COURT DIMENSIONS. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. .